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The Franco-Prussian War – Essay Example

The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation under command of the Kingdom of Prussia. The conflict was based on the Prussian ambition to extend German unification and French fear of Prussian dominance in Europe politics that would result if the Prussians succeeded.

A few historians claim that the Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck purposely incited the French into proclaiming battle on Prussia to draw the free southern German states — Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt — into a coalition with the North German Confederation. On July 19, 1870, the French parliament declared war on Prussia. The German triumph in the conflict brought about the unification of Germany and the possible breakdown of the Second French Domain. The Franco-Prussian Conflict started on July 15, 1870, when the Prussian armed force attacked the French territory of Alsace-Lorraine.

The French army was quickly defeated, and the Germans captured French Emperor Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan on September 2. The Prussian army then advanced on Paris, and the French government surrendered on September 4. The Prussian army occupied Paris on September 28.

The war ended on January 28, 1871, with the signing of the Treaty of Frankfurt. Under the terms of the treaty, France ceded Alsace-Lorraine to Prussia, and Prussia was recognized as the leading German state.

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Franco-Prussian War

The Franco-Prussian War: How the Germans Defeated the French in 1871

by World History Edu · May 24, 2024

The Franco-Prussian War, lasting from July 19, 1870, to May 10, 1871, culminated in the defeat of France by the German states led by Prussia. This conflict marked a significant turning point in European history, leading to the unification of Germany and the establishment of the German Empire. Several factors contributed to the German victory, including superior military organization, strategic planning, effective leadership, and the political landscape of Europe at the time.

In the article below, World History Edu will explore these elements in detail, providing a comprehensive understanding of how the Germans managed to defeat the French in 1871.

The Franco-Prussian War lasted from July 19, 1870, to May 10, 1871, and resulted in a decisive German victory, leading to the unification of Germany. Image: A painting depicting German soldiers escorting captured French soldiers.

Background and Causes of the War

The roots of the Franco-Prussian War can be traced back to the ambitions of Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck and the deteriorating relationship between France and Prussia.

Bismarck aimed to unify the German states under Prussian leadership, but he needed a common enemy to galvanize support for this cause.

France, under Emperor Napoleon III , viewed Prussia’s growing power with suspicion and sought to curb its influence.

The immediate catalyst for the war was the Ems Dispatch, a diplomatic communication edited by Bismarck to provoke French ire. The altered message made it seem as though the Prussian King Wilhelm I had insulted the French ambassador, leading to public outrage in France and a declaration of war on July 19, 1870.

Image: Wilhelm I (1797 – 1888)

Military Organization and Strategy

The German states, led by Prussia, had a well-organized and efficient military structure. The Prussian army, under the command of General Helmuth von Moltke, was highly disciplined and utilized the latest advancements in military technology and tactics. In contrast, the French military suffered from poor organization and outdated tactics.

One of the key advantages of the German forces was their use of railways for rapid troop movement. The Prussian General Staff had meticulously planned the mobilization of troops, allowing them to deploy quickly and efficiently. This logistical superiority meant that German forces could concentrate their strength at decisive points faster than the French.

Leadership and Command

Effective leadership played a crucial role in the German victory. Otto von Bismarck, Helmuth von Moltke, and King Wilhelm I formed a formidable leadership trio that coordinated political and military efforts seamlessly. Bismarck’s diplomatic acumen ensured that Germany faced no significant opposition from other European powers during the conflict.

General Moltke’s military strategy focused on encircling and overwhelming the French forces. He employed the use of “Kesselschlacht” or cauldron battles, where German troops would encircle the enemy, cut off their supply lines, and force them into decisive engagements. This strategy proved devastatingly effective throughout the war.

On the French side, leadership was plagued by indecision and miscommunication. Emperor Napoleon III, despite his military background, was not an effective war leader. The French high command suffered from internal conflicts and lacked a coherent strategy to counter the German advances.

Key Battles and Campaigns

Several key battles and campaigns during the Franco-Prussian War highlighted the effectiveness of the German military strategy and the weaknesses of the French forces.

Battle of Wissembourg (August 4, 1870)

The war’s first significant engagement took place at Wissembourg, where German forces quickly overwhelmed the French defenders. This battle set the tone for the rest of the conflict, demonstrating the German ability to mobilize and strike rapidly.

Image: Bavarian soldiers at the Battle of Wissembourg.

Battle of Sedan (September 1, 1870)

The Battle of Sedan was a decisive engagement that effectively ended the French resistance. German forces, utilizing superior tactics and coordination, encircled the French army led by Napoleon III. The French suffered heavy casualties, and Napoleon III was captured, leading to the collapse of the Second French Empire.

Siege of Paris (September 19, 1870 – January 28, 1871)

After the fall of Sedan, German forces laid siege to Paris. The French government, now a republic, continued to resist, but the siege eventually wore down the city’s defenders. Starvation and lack of supplies forced Paris to surrender, leading to the end of major hostilities.

Image: German soldiers parade through Paris, France

Technological and Tactical Superiority

The technological and tactical superiority of the German forces was another critical factor in their victory. The German army was equipped with the Dreyse needle gun, a breech-loading rifle that provided a significant rate of fire advantage over the French Chassepot rifle. Additionally, the Krupp steel artillery used by the Germans was more effective than the French artillery, providing greater range and accuracy.

The German tactics, emphasizing rapid movement, encirclement, and concentrated firepower, contrasted sharply with the more static and linear tactics employed by the French. The Prussian General Staff’s emphasis on flexibility and initiative allowed German commanders to adapt quickly to changing battlefield conditions, further enhancing their effectiveness.

Political and Diplomatic Factors

Bismarck’s diplomatic skill ensured that the German states could wage war without significant interference from other European powers. By isolating France diplomatically, Bismarck prevented potential alliances that could have bolstered French resistance. The neutrality of major powers like Britain and Russia was crucial in allowing Germany to focus its efforts solely on defeating France.

The Role of Nationalism and Public Support

Nationalism played a significant role in the Franco-Prussian War. In Germany, the war was seen as a unifying struggle to bring together the various German states into a single nation. This sense of national purpose galvanized public support and boosted morale among the troops. In France, however, the war was initially met with enthusiasm but soon gave way to disillusionment and internal strife as defeats mounted.

Aftermath and Consequences

The Franco-Prussian War had profound consequences for both France and Germany, as well as for the broader European political landscape.

The most significant outcome of the war was the unification of Germany. On January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed Emperor of the German Empire. This unification shifted the balance of power in Europe, establishing Germany as a major continental power.

The war officially ended with the Treaty of Frankfurt. Under the terms of the treaty, France ceded the territories of Alsace and Lorraine to Germany and agreed to pay a substantial indemnity. The loss of these territories and the financial burden placed a significant strain on France, contributing to political instability in the years that followed.

The defeat in the Franco-Prussian War had long-lasting impacts on France. The fall of the Second Empire led to the establishment of the Third Republic. The loss of Alsace and Lorraine fueled a desire for revenge and contributed to the rise of revanchism, a sentiment that would later play a role in the lead-up to World War I .

The war also highlighted the importance of industrialization and technological advancement in modern warfare. The effective use of railways, advanced artillery, and rapid-fire rifles demonstrated the changing nature of military conflict. These lessons were not lost on other European powers, leading to significant military reforms in the years following the war.

The Franco-Prussian War is considered a pivotal event in European history because it led to the unification of Germany, fundamentally altering the balance of power on the continent. Image: A painting named “The Siege of Paris” by French artist Jean-Louis-Ernest Meissonier.

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Did you know…?

The Franco-Prussian War’s outcome contributed to the formation of new alliances, such as the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente, which played significant roles in the lead-up to World War I. The lessons learned from the war also prompted military reforms and advancements across Europe.

The defeat of France by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was the result of a combination of factors, including superior military organization, effective leadership, strategic planning, and the diplomatic isolation of France.

The technological and tactical advantages of the German forces, combined with the political and social dynamics of the time, created a scenario in which German victory was almost inevitable.

The war’s outcome reshaped the European political landscape, leading to the unification of Germany and setting the stage for future conflicts. The lessons learned from this war had far-reaching implications, influencing military strategy and international relations for decades to come.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Franco-Prussian War

The Franco-Prussian War, fought between 1870 and 1871, was a significant conflict that reshaped the political landscape of Europe.

Below are some frequently asked questions about the war, along with detailed answers to provide a comprehensive understanding of this historical event:

What caused the Franco-Prussian War?

The immediate cause of the Franco-Prussian War was the Ems Dispatch, a manipulated communication by Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck that incited French anger. The broader causes included French fears of Prussian power, Bismarck’s ambition to unify the German states under Prussian leadership, and long-standing rivalries between France and Prussia.

Who were the main leaders during the war?

Key leaders during the Franco-Prussian War included:

For Germany: Prussian King Wilhelm I, Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, and General Helmuth von Moltke.
For France: Emperor Napoleon III and Marshal Patrice de MacMahon.

What were the major battles of the Franco-Prussian War?

Significant battles of the Franco-Prussian War included:

Battle of Wissembourg (August 4, 1870): The first major battle, where German forces overwhelmed French defenses.
Battle of Gravelotte (August 18, 1870): One of the bloodiest battles, leading to the German encirclement of French forces.
Battle of Sedan (September 1, 1870): A decisive German victory resulting in the capture of Napoleon III and the fall of the Second French Empire.
Siege of Paris (September 19, 1870 – January 28, 1871): The German siege that led to the surrender of Paris and the end of the war.

How did the Germans achieve victory in the war?

The German victory was due to several factors, including superior military organization, efficient use of railways for rapid troop movements, advanced weaponry such as the Dreyse needle gun and Krupp artillery, effective leadership by Bismarck and Moltke, and strategic encirclement tactics. Additionally, the diplomatic isolation of France ensured that no other major powers intervened on its behalf.

What were the consequences of the Franco-Prussian War?

T he war led to the proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles on January 18, 1871.

Also, there were some territorial changes. France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany.

The defeat of France led to the collapse of the Second French Empire and the establishment of the Third Republic.

The loss and humiliation fostered a sense of revanchism in France, contributing to the tensions leading up to World War I.

How did the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria spark World War I?

What was the Treaty of Frankfurt?

The Treaty of Frankfurt, signed on May 10, 1871, officially ended the Franco-Prussian War. Under its terms, France ceded Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, agreed to pay a war indemnity of five billion francs, and allowed German occupation of certain French territories until the indemnity was paid.

How did the Franco-Prussian War affect European politics?

The war significantly altered the balance of power in Europe. The unification of Germany established it as a major continental power, altering alliances and rivalries. The decline of French influence and the rise of Germany set the stage for future conflicts, including World War I. Additionally, the war demonstrated the importance of industrialization and military technology in modern warfare.

What role did Otto von Bismarck play in the Franco-Prussian War?

Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian Chancellor, played a pivotal role in orchestrating the conditions for the Franco-Prussian War. His diplomatic maneuvering, including the manipulation of the Ems Dispatch, provoked France into declaring war. During the conflict, Bismarck’s leadership and political strategy ensured the effective coordination of military and diplomatic efforts, leading to German victory and unification.

Image: Otto von Bismarck

Life and Major Accomplishments of Otto the Great

How did the war impact the civilian population?

The Franco-Prussian War had significant impacts on civilian populations, particularly in France. The Siege of Paris resulted in severe food shortages and hardships for Parisians. The loss of Alsace and Lorraine also displaced many people and fostered long-term resentment. Additionally, the financial burden of the war indemnity placed economic strain on the French populace.

What technological advancements were used in the war?

Technological advancements played a crucial role in the Franco-Prussian War. For example, one of the key technologies was the Dreyse Needle Gun, a breech-loading rifle used by the Prussians, which allowed for a higher rate of fire. There was also the Krupp Artillery, a superior steel artillery with greater range and accuracy than French counterparts.

What was the impact of the war on military strategy and tactics?

The Franco-Prussian War highlighted the importance of mobility, rapid deployment, and technological superiority in military strategy. The German use of railways for troop movements and the effective coordination of encirclement tactics influenced future military doctrines. The conflict underscored the need for nations to modernize their armies and adapt to the changing nature of warfare.

How did the French government respond to the defeat?

Following the defeat and the capture of Napoleon III, the French government transitioned from the Second Empire to the Third Republic. The new government continued to resist German forces during the Siege of Paris but ultimately had to capitulate. The post-war period saw political instability and efforts to rebuild and modernize France.

What was the significance of the proclamation of the German Empire?

The proclamation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871, marked the culmination of the unification efforts led by Prussia. It signified the emergence of Germany as a major European power, fundamentally altering the political landscape of Europe. The unification also fostered a sense of national identity and pride among Germans.

How did the Franco-Prussian War influence future military conflicts?

The Franco-Prussian War influenced future military conflicts by demonstrating the importance of rapid mobilization, technological superiority, and strategic planning. The lessons learned from the war were incorporated into military doctrines and strategies leading up to World War I. The war also highlighted the significance of industrial capacity and logistics in sustaining military efforts.

The Franco-Prussian War’s outcome set the stage for future conflicts, including World War I, by fostering rivalries and alliances that reshaped international relations. The technological and tactical innovations of the war also had lasting impacts on military strategy and warfare. Image: An illustration of the Battle of Gravelotte by French painter, Alphonse-Marie-Adolphe de Neuville.

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Tags: 19th Century Warfare Battle of Sedan French Second Empire German Unification Helmuth von Moltke Napoleon III Otto von Bismarck Siege of Paris Treaty of Frankfurt

The Franco-Prussian War 150 years on: A conflict that shaped the modern state

Dr michael rowe.

Reader in European History

17 July 2020

The 19 July marks the 150th anniversary of the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War. Whilst the conflict is now largely forgotten in Britain, the 1870 war had a massive impact. Not only did it overturn geo-political norms in Europe, but it also led to the rapid development of the modern state, including in areas seemingly removed from military and foreign affairs like education and public health policy. This linkage between military conflict and wider societal factors also went on to shape subsequent thinking about war generally.

In his seminal work, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France, 1870–1871, published in 1961, historian Sir Michael Howard revitalised military history scholarship. He looked beyond campaigns and battles to see instead how the societies of the belligerent states shaped the armies fighting on their behalf, and in many ways determined the outcomes of those conflicts.

Populist disruptors and the path to conflict

Looking back at the pre-war 1870 landscape, there are parallels that can be drawn today, including notably the role of populist disruptors in triggering international conflict. Emperor Napoleon III of France and Prussia's Otto von Bismarck were both products of the 1848 revolutions and master media manipulators who exploited the power of nationalism. Napoleon did so first, sweeping to power in the December 1848 presidential elections on the promise of ‘making France great again’, as it had been under his uncle, the first Napoleon. Four years later, just before his original term should have expired, he made himself emperor, and quickly reasserted French prestige by launching a succession of wars, including against Russia in the Crimea (1853-56).

Napoleon III's wars had unintended outcomes. One of these was that they turned Russia from being a bastion of the international order into a revisionist power. This in turn gave space to Bismarck to wreck what remained of the European system in a way that was definitely not to France's advantage. Austria was the main victim initially in the shake-up that followed, losing its position in Italy following military defeat at the hands of France in 1859, and more spectacularly forfeiting its prime role in Germany to Prussia after defeat in 1866.

This set the scene for the 1870 Franco-Prussian war. France, determined to thwart Prussia’s further rise, sought to block the candidacy of a Prussian prince to the Spanish throne in what looked like a good, old-fashioned, dynastic succession crisis. What made things different from earlier centuries was the weight of public opinion, in an age of universal male suffrage. Policy makers in Berlin and Paris sought to exploit the rising tide of nationalism on both sides of the Rhine, and this increased the risk of an explosion. That explosion came on 19 July.

A rapid French rout

Experts at the time expected the French to win. They overlooked serious weaknesses on the French side, which Sir Michael Howard's analysis shows extended far beyond the narrow military field, to wider political and societal disadvantages. These were reflected above all in the French conscription system, inherited in its essentials from the first Napoleon. This imposed upon the male population an obligation to serve, but in practice, only a small fraction was ever called up, who then served for seven years and often more. In consequence, the French army lacked the ability to 'scale-up' by calling on a mass of reservists.

The Prussian army, in contrast, drew upon the entire male population, producing a substantial body of trained reservists upon mobilisation. Prussian military planning, conducted by the famed General Staff headed by Helmuth von Moltke, made best use of the resulting numerical advantage, not least through the clever exploitation of railways.

Many military observers nonetheless preferred the French system, which produced an essentially professional force that was far better-suited to the near-continuous overseas deployments that Napoleon III's global ambitions demanded. Most damaging of all, despite its elitist pretensions, the French army was socially rather low-status. This was because the rich were allowed to pay for replacements to serve instead of their sons, should they be unlucky enough to be called up. No such facility existed in Prussia, with the result that its army more fairly approximated the nation-in-arms.

The consequence in 1870 was a French rout. General Philip Sheridan, American Civil War veteran, observed the Franco-German conflict at first hand, and his summary of the reasons for the outcome can hardly be bettered:

The earlier advantages gained by the Germans may be ascribed to the strikingly prompt mobilization of their armies, one of the most noticeable features of their perfect military system, devised by almost autocratic power; their later successes were greatly aided by the blunders of the French, whose stupendous errors materially shortened the war, though even if prolonged it could, in my opinion, have had ultimately no other termination. –

The French never recovered from the swift Prussian mobilisation, which included the direction of vast forces by rail towards and then across the frontier before the other side could adequately respond. Political reasons on the French side precluded the option of trading space for time, with the result that successive French armies were pushed forward into a series of encirclements and defeats. The most famous of these, the Battle of Sedan (1-2 September), cost Napoleon III his throne.

Sedan became something of a symbolic, foundational moment in the creation of the new German Empire that soon followed. Indeed, Sedantag (or 'Sedan Day'), became an unofficial holiday for the new nation state. This conveniently overlooked the far lengthier, messier and bloodier post-Sedan phase of the War, that ended only with the ceasefire at the end of January 1871. Features of this second phase included the German siege of Paris, efforts by French irregulars known as Francs-tireurs to disrupt Moltke's supply lines, and a brutal counter-insurgency campaign to stop them. Yet, as Sheridan noted, this form of resistance on the French side could only delay, not prevent, the final outcome.

A war that shaped the modern state

Geo-politically the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War was massive. It led directly to the creation of the German Empire, Continental Europe's most powerful state with Berlin replacing Paris as the focal point of global politics.

In the military domain, several lessons were learned. The first was the advantage of a system of conscription that was genuinely universal, for men, and that produced a large pool of reservists. The second was the importance of fast mobilisation, and planning to insure that the vast forces now available arrived at the right point, at the right time. The stress on swift mobilisation that was baked into war plans not only in Germany, but in other states too, made it far more likely that a future international crisis would trigger a war. This would prove to be the case in July 1914.

A third was the devastating impact of modern weapons, like the French Chassepot breach-loading rifle, and the Prussian steel breach-loading field guns. These weapons made frontal assaults by large densely-packed formations of infantry and heavy cavalry ill-advised. Battlefield tactics needed to adapt accordingly, with much more emphasis on smaller formations, flanking movements, and the use of cover. These tactics in turn required more initiative from junior and non-commissioned officers, and also ordinary soldiers.

The implication of this last point in particular extended well beyond the narrowly military domain. Instead, it had implications for wider policy, notably in areas concerned with education and public health. Policy makers recognised that the efficiency of armies was intimately bound up with the educational ability not only of a small elite, but of the entire population. France in particular drew the lesson from 1870 that Prussia won because of its better school system, and acted accordingly, passing the so-called Jules Ferry Laws in the 1880s instituting free, mandatory and secular education for children. Meanwhile, on the other side of the Rhine, the newly-minted German Empire was putting in place the world’s first government-mandated welfare system.

It is fitting to conclude this short piece by referring again to Sir Michael Howard’s work on the Franco-Prussian War. This conflict in particular lent itself to a comparative study of the societal differences between the two belligerents, France and Germany. These differences not only largely determined the military outcome, but also informed how the two sides learned the lessons of the war subsequently. This process, as already noted, hastened state building in Europe and beyond; and, as a later legacy, it helped shape the modern discipline of military history itself.

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Alaric Searle: review of Geoffrey Wawro, The Franco–Prussian War: The German Conquest of France 1870–1871

2004, German Historical Institute London Bulletin Vol 26 (2004), No. 2

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As the largest battle of the Franco-Prussian War, resulting in over 30,000 casualties between the North German Confederation and Second French Empire, this brief Battle Study addresses the cause of the conflict, a comparison of each army and their tactics, and a succinct recollection of the events of the battle. It concludes with a short question regarding the memory of the conflict and the stereotype of Prussian military dominance.

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by Alphonse Daudet

The last lesson about the franco-prussian war (1870).

Alphonse Daudet 's " The Last Lesson " is set in Alsace, a territory that Germany annexed from France during the Franco-Prussian War. That war, also known as the Franco-German War or the War of 1870, was fought between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation.

Historians consider the six-month conflict to have arisen through a combination of France's desire to regain a dominant position in continental Europe and Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck looking to exploit a war with France to consolidate independent southern German states into the Prussian-led Northern German Confederation.

The war resulted in Germany's victory, the capture of France's leader Napoleon III, and the German annexation of the North-Eastern French territories Lorraine and Alsace. The battle also brought independent German states into alliance and completed the Unification of Germany, which collected previously sovereign states into the German Empire.

The war saw the deaths of 44,000 German and 138,871 French soldiers. In addition, 250,000 civilians died in the conflict, with 162,000 German civilians dying in a smallpox epidemic spread by French prisoners of war.

At the outbreak of World War I, recovering the territory of Alsace-Lorraine became a major goal of the French military.

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Direct impact and profound consequences of the Franco-Prussian War

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Short (lasting only ten months, six of actual fighting), limited to two nations (the French and the Germans) and relatively unbloody (fewer than 200 000 dead) compared to the conflicts that came before and after it – the Napoleonic Wars and the American Civil War on the one hand, the First World War on the other – the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) had enormous consequences for the states involved and neighbouring Italy, as well as in terms of international relations. It is no exaggeration to say that the First World War was a product of the Franco-Prussian War, or even that it began a cycle of conflict in Europe that would not end until 1945. Yet, in a sense, the Franco-Prussian War was itself the result of the Revolutionary and Imperial Wars and the defeat inflicted on Prussia by Napoleon at the Battle of Jena, in 1806, and the strong nationalist feeling that arose from it.

In France, the capitulation at Sedan, on 2 September 1870, and the departure of Emperor Napoleon III, who personally commanded his army, into captivity resulted in the overthrow of the Second Empire by the Parisians two days later, but the republican Government of National Defence which took over and decided to go on with the war had no more success than the Empire, despite the energy of Léon Gambetta. After the preliminary peace settlement of February 1871, the people of Paris, who had suffered a long and difficult siege since mid-September, refused to hand over the cannons that protected the capital. There ensued the uprising of the Paris Commune, which descended into civil war and ended in a bloodbath (March to May 1871), leaving a lasting impression. The Republic, which had succeeded in securing a peace deal and restoring order, then took a conservative path which alienated the socialists but rallied the rural masses who constituted the majority of the French population at the time. It would take another decade, however, for it to achieve lasting popularity in the polls.

Napoleon III handing his sword to Wilhelm I . Anonymous American engraving, 1871. Library of Congress

The Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871, which imposed on France the payment of five billion francs in reparations, the occupation of a large part of its territory until that unprecedented sum had been paid in full, in September 1873, and above all the loss of Alsace and Moselle, led to collective low spirits owing to the humiliation of the defeat, and a strong desire for revenge.

The Last Cartridges , Alphonse de Neuville, 1873. Maison de la Dernière Cartouche, Bazeilles

Under a German law of February 1872 and a French law of April 1873, France and German Alsace-Moselle began to be covered with ossuaries and war memorials, a hitherto limited phenomenon. Le Souvenir Français, founded in 1887, played a major role in preserving the memory of the Franco-Prussian War and those who gave their lives for their country. From as early as 1871, many literary works, paintings and sculptures were already beginning to highlight French heroism, the two most famous examples being undoubtedly Alphonse de Neuville’s painting Les Dernières Cartouches ( The Last Cartridges ), from 1873, and Auguste Bartholdi’s monumental statue The Lion of Belfort , made between 1875 and 1880 to commemorate the town’s heroic resistance under the orders of Colonel Denfert-Rochereau. In another register, in July 1873 the majority monarchist and catholic National Assembly voted the construction of the Sacré Coeur Basilica – a “National Vow” – on the hill of Montmartre, for France to expiate its sins, from Napoleon III’s entry into war to the Paris Commune, of which Montmartre itself had been a bastion. The failure of the elites raised questions about their education, giving rise, among other things, to the creation of the École Libre des Sciences Politiques by Émile Boutmy, in February 1872, with a multidisciplinary approach and an international openness hitherto unseen in France. Above all, school and the army became the pillars of the fledgling Third Republic, and encouraged the French people never to take their eyes off the blue line of the Vosges mountains, the border with the contemptible Reich.

The Lion of Belfort , Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi

The repatriation of the French troops protecting the Papal States, as a result of the war, in August 1870, enabled the Italians to pursue unification, by taking the city of Rome, on 20 September 1870, then making it the capital of their kingdom, a few months later. Pope Pious IX considered himself a prisoner within the Vatican. The ensuing crisis with the Kingdom of Italy did not come to an end until 1929, with the Lateran Accords which gave the Pope sovereignty over the Vatican City in exchange for his recognition of the Kingdom of Italy.

But the most important consequences of the Franco-Prussian War were seen in Germany. Just as Bismarck wanted, the conflict, which the Minister President of Prussia and Chancellor of the North German Confederation succeeded in inciting the French Empire into starting, through a cleverly engineered provocation (the Ems Dispatch), galvanised the Germans around Prussia, which was by no means a foregone conclusion, in view of local peculiarities, sectarian divisions and fear of the hegemony of Berlin, particularly acute in Bavaria and Baden.

On 18 January 1871, Bismarck proclaimed the German Empire – the Second Reich – for his king, Wilhelm Hohenzollern, in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, a kind of revenge against Louis XIV’s sacking of the Palatinate, two centuries earlier. Although the new State was in fact a federation of States which preserved many prerogatives, German unification was nevertheless a major event in European and even world history. Continental domination passed from France to Bismarck’s Germany. The people manifested their pride at the creation of the Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, hailed as belonging to all Germans, and on the new national day, the Sedantag. Over subsequent decades, Germany saw spectacular economic and population growth. Above all, the German Chancellor succeeded in completely isolating France on the international stage.

Proclamation of the German Empire in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles, on 18 January 1871. , Anton von Werner, 1885. Bismarck-Museum

Two contributory factors were the presence of a republican regime in Paris, which frightened a Europe that was still almost exclusively monarchic, and the strong sense that France wanted to exact its revenge, as the military law of 1872 led one to believe.

Bismarck took advantage of this to organise, in September 1872, a meeting between his emperor, Wilhelm I, the Austro-Hungarian emperor, Franz Joseph, and Tsar Alexander II. Despite the rivalry of Austria-Hungary and Russia, both of which believed they could take advantage of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire to expand into the Balkans, a defensive alliance was agreed the following year between the three powers. With the adherence of Italy to the agreement of the three emperors in 1874, and Britain’s abstention, France’s isolation was complete. However, after the Balkan crisis and the Congress of Berlin in the summer of 1878, which put Vienna and St Petersburg on bad terms, Bismarck decided to strengthen ties between Berlin and Vienna, because he deemed Austria-Hungary to be safer and closer to Germany than Russia. He succeeded in overcoming the reticence of Wilhelm I, who was attached to the Russian alliance, to put his new system in place.

The Congress of Berlin, 13 July 1878 , Anton von Werner, 1881. Standing, centre-right: the Hungarian Andrasy, Bismarck and the Russian Chouvalov. Berliner Rathaus, Berlin

On 7 October 1879, the secret treaty of the Dual Alliance was signed. This was a military alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary, in the event that one of them should be attacked by Russia or one of its allies. It guaranteed, in addition, the neutrality of the partner in the event of an attack by another country. Meanwhile, Bismarck persuaded the new tsar, Alexander III, to sign a new Three Emperors’ Treaty, on 18 June 1881. The text stipulated that, if one of the three powers entered into war against a fourth, the other two would maintain benevolent neutrality. The following year, Italy, at odds with France over Tunisia, joined the alliance. The treaty instituting the Triple Alliance between Berlin, Vienna and Rome was signed on 20 May 1882. If Italy was attacked by France, Germany and Austria-Hungary would offer assistance. In exchange, Germany would assist Italy if it went to war with France, and Austria-Hungary would do so if Italy was attacked by both Russia and France.

Bismarck achieved the remarkable feat of obtaining an entente between Russia and Austria-Hungary, on the one hand, and Italy and Austria-Hungary, on the other. Berlin and London were on good terms, whereas French and British interests were at loggerheads in Egypt. Meanwhile, Germany signed an alliance with Romania and maintained cordial relations with Spain, Turkey and Serbia. With the renewal of the Three Emperors’ Treaty, in 1884, and the Triple Alliance, in 1887, to which even Britain and Spain partially adhered to contain French ambitions in the Mediterranean, this Bismarckian system reached its apogee. France seemed to be completely surrounded this time..

Otto von Bismarck. Source: German Federal Archives

However, after apparently forgetting about the blue line of the Vosges to turn its attention towards colonial expansion in Africa and Asia, under Jules Ferry, France made continental affairs a priority once again, following the fall of the prime minister, in March 1885. Two years later, the Schnaebelé incident brought France and Germany to the brink of war. A police inspector in a small town near the border, Schnaebelé was also a French intelligence agent. Keen to bolster nationalist opinion in the run-up to the German legislative elections, Bismarck decided to act firmly. Lured into an ambush, the spy was arrested on French territory by German police. This caused outrage in France, and the war minister, General Boulanger, prepared for partial mobilisation. The sang-froid of French president Jules Grévy, and Bismarck’s decision to release Schnaebelé, averted the danger in this instance, but nationalist fever did not abate and Boulangism grew.

Across the Rhine, the threats of a coup from General Revanche and of a war being waged by France to recover Alsace-Moselle were taken more seriously than ever. Yet the new German emperor, Wilhelm II, decided to set his country on a path of global expansion that was more in keeping, in his view, with Germany’s status as a major economic and military power. Born in 1815, at the time of the Congress of Vienna, old chancellor Bismarck, who remained a European above all else and was in some ways obsessed with the possibility of French revenge, was forced to resign in March 1890. Over the next quarter of a century, the Triple Entente was put in place to counter the Triple Alliance. It was this standoff between the two belligerents of the Franco-Prussian War and the rival blocs which each had formed around themselves that led to the First World War.

Section of the panoramic painting representing the Bourbaki Army in Switzerland, Édouard Castres, 1881-85. Musée de Lucerne.

However, the Franco-Prussian War also drove the development of international humanitarian law, which saw its first advances with the Geneva Convention. Signed in August 1864, in the wake of the Crimean War, the Italian War of Independence and the Syrian Expedition, and right in the middle of the American Civil War, the Convention laid down rules for the protection of wounded soldiers. It was on the initiative of Tsar Alexander II that the Brussels Conference was then held, in July-August 1874, the direct origins of which can be traced to the Franco-Prussian War. During the course of that war, the laws and customs of war really began to be codified. Meanwhile, the passage of Bourbaki’s vanquished army into the neutral territory of Switzerland to escape the Germans, in January 1871, created an unprecedented legal problem and led to bilateral agreements between France, Germany and Switzerland. It was all ratified in the two big Hague conventions (July 1899 and October 1907), they, too, a product of the Franco-Prussian War and many of whose articles are still in force today.

Éric Anceau – Sorbonne University, vice-chair of the CHPP, assistant director of HES, head of politics at LabEx-EHNE

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> The Franco-Prussian War
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Book contents

Frontmatter
List of Abbreviations
List of Illustrations
Acknowledgments
Introduction
1 Causes of the Franco-Prussian War
2 The Armies in 1870
3 Mobilization for War
4 Wissembourg and Spicheren
5 Froeschwiller
6 Mars-la-Tour
7 Gravelotte
8 The Road to Sedan
10 France on the Brink
11 France Falls
12 The Peace
Bibliography

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 20 July 2009

There were two Prussias in 1870. One was described by Theodor Fontane in Rambles through the Brandenburg March , a rambling four-volume travel book that depicted a savage Prussia still emerging from its swamps and forests. “Do not expect the comforts of the Grand Tour,” Fontane chuckled in the first volume, but “poverty, squalor and … no modern culture.” Trains were still a luxury in this industrializing kingdom of coal and iron; they plied only between the big cities and towns. For travel between Prussian villages, hired traps were needed, but they were invariably driven by resentful provincials, who would drive you round in circles, in and out of woods and streams, and end up charging you more for a short ride between neighboring hamlets than you would pay on the railway for the five-hour trip from Berlin to Dresden. Prussia in 1870 was still a “virginal wilderness,” a land of bogs and pines that ran right up to the gates of Berlin itself. It was a rough country with rough manners. The Viennese – always condescending where the Prussians were concerned – derided their northern cousins as having “two legs rooted in the Bible, two in the soil.” The Prussians could be knuckle-dragging, evangelical philistines, a conclusion that even a great patriot like Theodor Fontane was at pains to avoid.

The other Prussia was described by Karl Marx in the 1860s. Berlin, with its splendid Baroque palaces and Le Nôtre gardens, was a graceful, expanding city.

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Geoffrey Wawro , University of North Texas
Book: The Franco-Prussian War
Online publication: 20 July 2009
Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511511820.001

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The Seven Weeks’ War , by creating the North German Confederation , a powerful new state in the heart of central Europe , abruptly altered the system of international relations on the Continent. Every government now had to reexamine its diplomatic and military position. No nation, however, was affected by the victory of the Prussian armies as directly as France . Emperor Napoleon III had encouraged hostilities between Austria and Prussia on the assumption that both combatants would emerge from the struggle exhausted and that the Second Empire of France could then expand eastward against little resistance. The outcome of the war revealed how shortsighted such calculations had been. Instead of profiting from the conflict between Francis Joseph and William I , Paris suddenly confronted a strong and united German state that presented a serious threat to French interests. The French government was bound to regard this turn of events with suspicion and hostility. It sought to mitigate its discomfiture by seeking compensation in the Rhineland , Luxembourg , or Belgium . But Berlin succeeded in frustrating these plans, and the conviction began to grow in France that sooner or later a struggle with Germany would be unavoidable. The prospect of a new armed conflict was not unwelcome to Bismarck . He wanted to see national unification consummated by the entry of the southern states into the North German Confederation. Yet public opinion south of the Main River remained distrustful. Only a common patriotic struggle against foreign aggression might overcome the reluctance of the south to unite politically with the north. Thus in Berlin as well as in Paris there were reasons for seeking a test of strength. The immediate occasion came in the spring of 1870 with the candidacy of Prince Leopold , a relative of William I, for the throne of Spain , a prospect that appeared to threaten French national security. Bismarck cleverly exploited the ensuing controversy to provoke the French into initiating hostilities in such a way as to inflame German patriotic indignation.

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When France learned of Leopold’s acceptance of the offer of the Spanish crown, there were wild protests in Paris and an immediate demand that Leopold be ordered to withdraw. On July 12 his father renounced the Spanish candidature on his behalf. This was not enough for the French government; it insisted that William I, as head of the Hohenzollern family, should promise that the candidature would never be renewed. This demand was presented to William at Ems by the French ambassador. Though William refused to give a promise, he dismissed the ambassador in a friendly enough way. But when the Ems telegram , a report of the encounter, reached Bismarck, he shortened it for publication to imply that the French ambassador had insulted William and that the king had refused to see the French ambassador again. The French used the king’s supposed refusal as an excuse to declare war on Prussia on July 19.

Bismarck’s calculation that a struggle waged ostensibly against the aggression of Napoleon III would overcome particularism south of the Main River proved correct. The southern states joined the north in the Franco-Prussian War , and the brotherhood of arms brought a sense of unity that was soon enhanced by the intoxication of victory. The German troops won one battle after another in hard fighting along the frontier, until on September 2 they forced a large French army, headed by the emperor himself, to surrender at Sedan . The result was the establishment of a republican government in France, which continued to wage the struggle in the name of the old revolutionary ideals of 1793. The generalship of Moltke and the might of the German armies, however, were too much for the fierce determination of the new regime. Paris capitulated on January 28, 1871, after a long and bitter siege, and on May 10 the Treaty of Frankfurt brought the war officially to a close. The Third Republic had to cede Alsace-Lorraine to Germany, pay an indemnity of five billion francs, and accept an army of occupation. It was a peace designed to crush a dangerous rival. The work of national unification in Germany, in the meantime, was successfully completed even before hostilities had ended. Bismarck had entered into negotiations with the southern states soon after the outbreak of war, determined to use patriotic fervour as an instrument for achieving political consolidation. The enthusiasm aroused in Germany by the victory over France proved too much for the defenders of particularism. On January 18, while Prussian guns bombarded Paris, William I was proclaimed emperor of a united nation at military headquarters in Versailles . The governments south of the Main River joined the North German Confederation to form a powerful new Reich under the Hohenzollerns. Within a single lifetime, Germany had completed the transition from cosmopolitanism to nationalism , from serfdom to industrialization, from division to union, from weakness to dominance, from the Holy Roman Empire to the German Empire .

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Treaty of Frankfurt ends Franco‑Prussian War

The humiliating defeat of Louis Napoleon’s Second Empire of France is made complete on May 10, 1871, when the Treaty of Frankfurt is signed , ending the Franco-Prussian War and marking the decisive entry of a newly unified German state on the stage of European power politics, so long dominated by the great empires of England and France.

At the root of the Franco-Prussian conflict was the desire of the ambitious statesman Prince Otto von Bismarck to unify the collection of German states under the control of the most powerful of them, his own Prussia. The event that immediately precipitated the war was the Bismarck-engineered bid by Prince Leopold, of the Prussian Hohenzollern royal family, for the throne of Spain, left empty after a revolution in 1868. Horrified by the idea of a Prussian-Spanish alliance, the French government of Louis Napoleon (or Napoleon III) blocked this idea and, determined to humiliate Prussia into subordination, insisted that the Prussian king, Wilhelm I, personally apologize to the French sovereign and promise that there be no further such attempts by the Hohenzollerns. Wilhelm refused, and subsequently authorized Bismarck to publish the French demands and his own rejection of them; the prince did so knowing such a move would precipitate a war, which he himself greatly desired in order to free Prussia completely from French influence.

Eager to regain prestige after numerous defeats abroad and reassert its military dominance on the European continent, France declared war on July 19, 1870. Unfortunately for the French, the states of southern Germany honored their treaties with mighty Prussia and immediately backed Wilhelm’s armies. Thus the Germans were able to marshal some 400,000 men, double the number of French troops, at the outset of the war. Under the supreme command of Wilhelm and guided by Count Helmuth von Moltke—known as Moltke The Elder, to distinguish him from his nephew, who would command German forces during World War I —three German armies cut a broad swath through France, gaining the upper hand almost from the beginning of the fighting.

The crucial battle of the war, fought around the town of Sedan in northern France, resulted in a crushing German victory, in which Napoleon III himself was captured. Upon learning of the emperor’s capture, Paris exploded into rebellion; the legislative assembly was dissolved, and France was declared a republic. Meanwhile, the Germans were closing in: by the end of September, they had captured Strasbourg and completely surrounded France’s capital city, which they subjected to merciless siege and bombardment for the next several months. On January 19, 1871, the French government was forced to open negotiations for surrender. A day earlier, in an added humiliation for France, the Bismarckian dream of unification was fulfilled, as Wilhelm I of Prussia was crowned emperor, or kaiser, of the new German state, in a ceremony that took place in the sumptuous Hall of Mirrors, at Paris’s Versailles palace.

By the terms of the final treaty, signed on May 10, 1871, at Frankfurt am Main, Germany annexed the French provinces of Alsace (excluding Belfort) and Lorraine; the French were also ordered to pay an indemnity of five billion francs. German troops occupied France until September 1873, when the amount had been paid in full. The Franco-Prussian War and the nearly three years of German occupation that followed marked the beginning of a growing enmity between anxious France, its influence and power in decline, and striving Germany, a technologically and industrially superior nation that by the first decade of the 20th century had built the most powerful land army on the European continent. In the summer of 1914, this rivalry would explode into full-scale global warfare, pitting France and the Allies against Germany and the Central Powers in the most devastating conflict the world had yet seen.

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Introduction: the Franco-Prussian War in French and German History

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Karine Varley, Introduction: the Franco-Prussian War in French and German History, French History , 2021;, crab047, https://doi.org/10.1093/fh/crab047

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This virtual special issue brings together a selection of articles from French History and German History to mark the 150th anniversary of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. The articles centre upon some of the key themes that have driven historical research in recent years, including violence, the conduct of war, national and border identities, republicanism, liberalism and state-building. Moving beyond traditional military studies and the focus on the war itself, the articles reflect a growing scholarly interest in the wider political, social and cultural repercussions of the Franco-Prussian War.

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Franco Prussian War of the 19th Century in Europe Essay Example
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Origins and consequences of the Franco-Prussian War
Franco-Prussian War, or Franco-German War, (1870-71) War in which a coalition of German states led by Prussia defeated France, ending French hegemony in continental Europe and creating a unified Germany. The immediate cause of the Franco-Prussian War was the candidacy of Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen for the Spanish throne, which ...
Franco-German War
Franco-German War (July 19, 1870-May 10, 1871), war in which a coalition of German states led by Prussia defeated France. The war marked the end of French hegemony in continental Europe and resulted in the creation of a unified Germany. Superior numbers, organization, and mobility contributed to the German victory.
Franco-Prussian War
The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, [b] often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia.Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 January 1871, the conflict was caused primarily by France's determination to reassert its dominant position in continental Europe, which appeared in ...
The Franco-Prussian War
The Franco-Prussian War (1870-71) was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation under command of the Kingdom of Prussia. The conflict was based on the Prussian ambition to extend German unification and French fear of Prussian dominance in Europe politics that would result if the Prussians succeeded.
The Franco-Prussian War: How the Germans Defeated the French in 1871
The defeat of France by Germany in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871 was the result of a combination of factors, including superior military organization, effective leadership, strategic planning, and the diplomatic isolation of France. The technological and tactical advantages of the German forces, combined with the political and social ...
Causes of the Franco-Prussian War
The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding German unification.In the aftermath of the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Prussia had annexed numerous ethnically German territories and formed the North German Confederation with other German territories. Prussia then turned its attention towards the south of Germany, where it sought to expand its influence.
Franco-German War: Facts & Related Content
List. Franco-German War (July 19, 1870-May 10, 1871), war in which a coalition of German states led by Prussia defeated France. The war marked the end of French hegemony in continental Europe and resulted in the creation of a unified Germany. Superior numbers, organization, and mobility contributed to the German victory.
The Franco-Prussian War 150 years on: A ...
In his seminal work, The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France, 1870-1871, published in 1961, historian Sir Michael Howard revitalised military history scholarship. He looked beyond campaigns and battles to see instead how the societies of the belligerent states shaped the armies fighting on their behalf, and in many ways determined the outcomes of those conflicts.
PDF Introduction: the Franco-Prussian war in French and German history
German History to mark the 150th anniversary of this pivotal conflict . While historians have. sought increasingly to frame the Franco-Prussian War in an international and global. perspective, the official commemorations sought to package the conflict into an exclusively. Franco-German framework.2 The neat formula that the Franco-Prussian War ...
Franco-Prussian War
Franco-Prussian War. Since 1866, when Prussia had defeated Austria and won the leadership in Germany, the leaders of the Second French Empire had longed to crush Prussia, which they considered an upstart power. Meanwhile Bismarck, the chancellor of Prussia, felt that a war was necessary to unify Germany (see Bismarck, Otto von). Thus the stage ...
1
Summary. On 3 July 1866, even as Emperor Napoleon III made plans to dispatch an envoy to Prussian royal headquarters to urge restraint, a quarter of a million Prussian troops under the command of General Helmuth von Moltke smashed the Austrian army at the battle of Königgrätz. In just three weeks of fighting, Moltke had invaded the Austrian ...
The Franco-Prussian War
The Franco-Prussian War was the result of German-French animosity that had developed during the late 19th century. One of the direct causes was the EMS Dispatch, a telegram that was altered by ...
Alaric Searle: review of Geoffrey Wawro, The Franco-Prussian War: The
"Suffering during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870/71 has to be interpreted in the context of three developments: the willingness to alleviate wartime suffering, which had led to the foundation of the International Red Cross and the Geneva Convention a few years earlier, the industrialization of war, which had enormously increased the efficiency of the weaponry, and the nationalization of war.
The Last Lesson About the Franco-Prussian War (1870)
That war, also known as the Franco-German War or the War of 1870, was fought between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation. Historians consider the six-month conflict to have arisen through a combination of France's desire to regain a dominant position in continental Europe and Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck looking ...
Direct impact and profound consequences of the Franco-Prussian War
Yet, in a sense, the Franco-Prussian War was itself the result of the Revolutionary and Imperial Wars and the defeat inflicted on Prussia by Napoleon at the Battle of Jena, in 1806, and the strong nationalist feeling that arose from it. In France, the capitulation at Sedan, on 2 September 1870, and the departure of Emperor Napoleon III, who ...
Two Friends Analysis
Analysis. Last Updated September 6, 2023. Guy de Maupassant's "Two Friends" takes place in January 1871, toward the end of the Franco-Prussian (or Franco-German) War. Since the war figures ...
Introduction
Summary. There were two Prussias in 1870. One was described by Theodor Fontane in Rambles through the Brandenburg March, a rambling four-volume travel book that depicted a savage Prussia still emerging from its swamps and forests. "Do not expect the comforts of the Grand Tour," Fontane chuckled in the first volume, but "poverty, squalor ...
Germany
Germany - Franco-Prussian War, Unification, Empire: The Seven Weeks' War, by creating the North German Confederation, a powerful new state in the heart of central Europe, abruptly altered the system of international relations on the Continent. Every government now had to reexamine its diplomatic and military position. No nation, however, was affected by the victory of the Prussian armies as ...
Science and the Franco-Prussian War
Science and the Franco-Prussian War Maurice Crosland The historian of science is interested in factors which encourage the development of science and also those which inhibit it. In addition he must concern himself with influences which, a priori, are less clearly positive or negative. One of these is the influence of war.1 This essay
Treaty of Frankfurt ends Franco‑Prussian War
The Franco-Prussian War and the nearly three years of German occupation that followed marked the beginning of a growing enmity between anxious France, its influence and power in decline, and ...
Introduction: the Franco-Prussian War in French and German History
The Franco-Prussian War and the subsequent annexation of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany gave rise to a proliferation of Marian apparitions. Klein focuses on the example of Krüth, where in 1872 a young girl claimed to have had a vision of the Virgin Mary confronting a group of Prussian soldiers. In the months that followed, the village attracted ...