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Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods

Siedlecki, Sandra L. PhD, RN, APRN-CNS, FAAN

Author Affiliation: Senior Nurse Scientist and Clinical Nurse Specialist, Office of Nursing Research & Innovation, Nursing Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Ohio.

The author reports no conflicts of interest.

Correspondence: Sandra L. Siedlecki, PhD, RN, APRN-CNS, 3271 Stillwater Dr, Medina, OH 44256 ( [email protected] ).

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Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods

Affiliation.

  • 1 Author Affiliation: Senior Nurse Scientist and Clinical Nurse Specialist, Office of Nursing Research & Innovation, Nursing Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Ohio.
  • PMID: 31789957
  • DOI: 10.1097/NUR.0000000000000493

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Descriptive Research and Qualitative Research

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descriptive research design pdf journal

  • Eunsook T. Koh 2 &
  • Willis L. Owen 2  

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Descriptive research is a study of status and is widely used in education, nutrition, epidemiology, and the behavioral sciences. Its value is based on the premise that problems can be solved and practices improved through observation, analysis, and description. The most common descriptive research method is the survey, which includes questionnaires, personal interviews, phone surveys, and normative surveys. Developmental research is also descriptive. Through cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, researchers investigate the interaction of diet (e.g., fat and its sources, fiber and its sources, etc.) and life styles (e.g., smoking, alcohol drinking, etc.) and of disease (e.g., cancer, coronary heart disease) development. Observational research and correlational studies constitute other forms of descriptive research. Correlational studies determine and analyze relationships between variables as well as generate predictions. Descriptive research generates data, both qualitative and quantitative, that define the state of nature at a point in time. This chapter discusses some characteristics and basic procedures of the various types of descriptive research.

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Koh, E.T., Owen, W.L. (2000). Descriptive Research and Qualitative Research. In: Introduction to Nutrition and Health Research. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1401-5_12

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Defining Exploratory-Descriptive Qualitative (EDQ) research and considering its application to healthcare

  • David Hunter , J. McCallum , Dora Howes
  • Published 24 July 2018

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Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

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The book Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches by Creswell (2014) covers three approaches-qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. This educational book is informative and illustrative and is equally beneficial for students, teachers and researchers. Readers should have basic knowledge of research for better understanding of this book. There are two parts of the book. Part 1 (chapter 1-4) consists of steps for developing research proposal and part II (chapter 5-10) explains how to develop a research proposal or write a research report. A summary is given at the end of every chapter that helps the reader to recapitulate the ideas. Moreover, writing exercises and suggested readings at the end of every chapter are useful for the readers. Chapter 1 opens with-definition of research approaches and the author gives his opinion that selection of a research approach is based on the nature of the research problem, researchers' experience and the audience of the study. The author defines qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods research. A distinction is made between quantitative and qualitative research approaches. The author believes that interest in qualitative research increased in the latter half of the 20th century. The worldviews, Fraenkel, Wallen and Hyun (2012) and Onwuegbuzie and Leech (2005) call them paradigms, have been explained. Sometimes, the use of language becomes too philosophical and technical. This is probably because the author had to explain some technical terms.

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Conducting a well-established research requires deep knowledge about the research designs. Doing research can be likened to jumping into the sea which may transform into a huge ocean if the researcher is not experienced. As a PhD candidate and a novice researcher, I believe that the book "Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches" by J.W. Creswell is a true reference guide for novice researchers since it is the most comprehensive and informative source with its reader-friendly structure.

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John W. Creswell was previously a professor in educational psychology in the University of Nebraska–Lincoln. He moved to the University of Michigan in 2015 as a professor in the Department of Family Medicine. He has published many articles and close to 27 books on mixed methods. Professor Creswell is also one of the founding members of the Journal of Mixed Methods Research. He was a Fulbright scholar in South Africa in 2008 and Thailand in 2012. In 2011, he served as a visiting professor in the School of Public Health of Harvard University. In 2014, he became the Chairman of the Mixed Methods International Research Association. Professor Creswell has a personal website called “Mixed Methods Research” at http://johnwcreswell.com/. The site contains the information about his background, his own blog, consulting works and published books. He also posted replies questions from academic researchers and practitioners in the blog.

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Methodology

  • Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research | Definition, Types, Methods & Examples

Published on May 15, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods, other interesting articles.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it happens.

Descriptive research question examples

  • How has the Amsterdam housing market changed over the past 20 years?
  • Do customers of company X prefer product X or product Y?
  • What are the main genetic, behavioural and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
  • What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
  • How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

  • Describing the demographics of a country or region
  • Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
  • Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organization’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

  • Normal distribution
  • Degrees of freedom
  • Null hypothesis
  • Discourse analysis
  • Control groups
  • Mixed methods research
  • Non-probability sampling
  • Quantitative research
  • Ecological validity

Research bias

  • Rosenthal effect
  • Implicit bias
  • Cognitive bias
  • Selection bias
  • Negativity bias
  • Status quo bias

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Characteristics of Qualitative Descriptive Studies: A Systematic Review

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Christine Bradway

PhD, CRNP, FAAN, Associate Professor of Gerontological Nursing, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing

Qualitative description (QD) is a term that is widely used to describe qualitative studies of health care and nursing-related phenomena. However, limited discussions regarding QD are found in the existing literature. In this systematic review, we identified characteristics of methods and findings reported in research articles published in 2014 whose authors identified the work as QD. After searching and screening, data were extracted from the sample of 55 QD articles and examined to characterize research objectives, design justification, theoretical/philosophical frameworks, sampling and sample size, data collection and sources, data analysis, and presentation of findings. In this review, three primary findings were identified. First, despite inconsistencies, most articles included characteristics consistent with limited, available QD definitions and descriptions. Next, flexibility or variability of methods was common and desirable for obtaining rich data and achieving understanding of a phenomenon. Finally, justification for how a QD approach was chosen and why it would be an appropriate fit for a particular study was limited in the sample and, therefore, in need of increased attention. Based on these findings, recommendations include encouragement to researchers to provide as many details as possible regarding the methods of their QD study so that readers can determine whether the methods used were reasonable and effective in producing useful findings.

Qualitative description (QD) is a label used in qualitative research for studies which are descriptive in nature, particularly for examining health care and nursing-related phenomena ( Polit & Beck, 2009 , 2014 ). QD is a widely cited research tradition and has been identified as important and appropriate for research questions focused on discovering the who, what, and where of events or experiences and gaining insights from informants regarding a poorly understood phenomenon. It is also the label of choice when a straight description of a phenomenon is desired or information is sought to develop and refine questionnaires or interventions ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ; Sullivan-Bolyai et al., 2005 ).

Despite many strengths and frequent citations of its use, limited discussions regarding QD are found in qualitative research textbooks and publications. To the best of our knowledge, only seven articles include specific guidance on how to design, implement, analyze, or report the results of a QD study ( Milne & Oberle, 2005 ; Neergaard, Olesen, Andersen, & Sondergaard, 2009 ; Sandelowski, 2000 , 2010 ; Sullivan-Bolyai, Bova, & Harper, 2005 ; Vaismoradi, Turunen, & Bondas, 2013 ; Willis, Sullivan-Bolyai, Knafl, & Zichi-Cohen, 2016 ). Furthermore, little is known about characteristics of QD as reported in journal-published, nursing-related, qualitative studies. Therefore, the purpose of this systematic review was to describe specific characteristics of methods and findings of studies reported in journal articles (published in 2014) self-labeled as QD. In this review, we did not have a goal to judge whether QD was done correctly but rather to report on the features of the methods and findings.

Features of QD

Several QD design features and techniques have been described in the literature. First, researchers generally draw from a naturalistic perspective and examine a phenomenon in its natural state ( Sandelowski, 2000 ). Second, QD has been described as less theoretical compared to other qualitative approaches ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ), facilitating flexibility in commitment to a theory or framework when designing and conducting a study ( Sandelowski, 2000 , 2010 ). For example, researchers may or may not decide to begin with a theory of the targeted phenomenon and do not need to stay committed to a theory or framework if their investigations take them down another path ( Sandelowski, 2010 ). Third, data collection strategies typically involve individual and/or focus group interviews with minimal to semi-structured interview guides ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ; Sandelowski, 2000 ). Fourth, researchers commonly employ purposeful sampling techniques such as maximum variation sampling which has been described as being useful for obtaining broad insights and rich information ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ; Sandelowski, 2000 ). Fifth, content analysis (and in many cases, supplemented by descriptive quantitative data to describe the study sample) is considered a primary strategy for data analysis ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ; Sandelowski, 2000 ). In some instances thematic analysis may also be used to analyze data; however, experts suggest care should be taken that this type of analysis is not confused with content analysis ( Vaismoradi et al., 2013 ). These data analysis approaches allow researchers to stay close to the data and as such, interpretation is of low-inference ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ), meaning that different researchers will agree more readily on the same findings even if they do not choose to present the findings in the same way ( Sandelowski, 2000 ). Finally, representation of study findings in published reports is expected to be straightforward, including comprehensive descriptive summaries and accurate details of the data collected, and presented in a way that makes sense to the reader ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ; Sandelowski, 2000 ).

It is also important to acknowledge that variations in methods or techniques may be appropriate across QD studies ( Sandelowski, 2010 ). For example, when consistent with the study goals, decisions may be made to use techniques from other qualitative traditions, such as employing a constant comparative analytic approach typically associated with grounded theory ( Sandelowski, 2000 ).

Search Strategy and Study Screening

The PubMed electronic database was searched for articles written in English and published from January 1, 2014 to December 31, 2014, using the terms, “qualitative descriptive study,” “qualitative descriptive design,” and “qualitative description,” combined with “nursing.” This specific publication year, “2014,” was chosen because it was the most recent full year at the time of beginning this systematic review. As we did not intend to identify trends in QD approaches over time, it seemed reasonable to focus on the nursing QD studies published in a certain year. The inclusion criterion for this review was data-based, nursing-related, research articles in which authors used the terms QD, qualitative descriptive study, or qualitative descriptive design in their titles or abstracts as well as in the main texts of the publication.

All articles yielded through an initial search in PubMed were exported into EndNote X7 ( Thomson Reuters, 2014 ), a reference management software, and duplicates were removed. Next, titles and abstracts were reviewed to determine if the publication met inclusion criteria; all articles meeting inclusion criteria were then read independently in full by two authors (HK and JS) to determine if the terms – QD or qualitative descriptive study/design – were clearly stated in the main texts. Any articles in which researchers did not specifically state these key terms in the main text were then excluded, even if the terms had been used in the study title or abstract. In one article, for example, although “qualitative descriptive study” was reported in the published abstract, the researchers reported a “qualitative exploratory design” in the main text of the article ( Sundqvist & Carlsson, 2014 ); therefore, this article was excluded from our review. Despite the possibility that there may be other QD studies published in 2014 that were not labeled as such, to facilitate our screening process we only included articles where the researchers clearly used our search terms for their approach. Finally, the two authors compared, discussed, and reconciled their lists of articles with a third author (CB).

Study Selection

Initially, although the year 2014 was specifically requested, 95 articles were identified (due to ahead of print/Epub) and exported into the EndNote program. Three duplicate publications were removed and the 20 articles with final publication dates of 2015 were also excluded. The remaining 72 articles were then screened by examining titles, abstracts, and full-texts. Based on our inclusion criteria, 15 (of 72) were then excluded because QD or QD design/study was not identified in the main text. We then re-examined the remaining 57 articles and excluded two additional articles that did not meet inclusion criteria (e.g., QD was only reported as an analytic approach in the data analysis section). The remaining 55 publications met inclusion criteria and comprised the sample for our systematic review (see Figure 1 ).

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Flow Diagram of Study Selection

Of the 55 publications, 23 originated from North America (17 in the United States; 6 in Canada), 12 from Asia, 11 from Europe, 7 from Australia and New Zealand, and 2 from South America. Eleven studies were part of larger research projects and two of them were reported as part of larger mixed-methods studies. Four were described as a secondary analysis.

Quality Appraisal Process

Following the identification of the 55 publications, two authors (HK and JS) independently examined each article using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) qualitative checklist ( CASP, 2013 ). The CASP was chosen to determine the general adequacy (or rigor) of the qualitative studies included in this review as the CASP criteria are generic and intend to be applied to qualitative studies in general. In addition, the CASP was useful because we were able to examine the internal consistency between study aims and methods and between study aims and findings as well as the usefulness of findings ( CASP, 2013 ). The CASP consists of 10 main questions with several sub-questions to consider when making a decision about the main question ( CASP, 2013 ). The first two questions have reviewers examine the clarity of study aims and appropriateness of using qualitative research to achieve the aims. With the next eight questions, reviewers assess study design, sampling, data collection, and analysis as well as the clarity of the study’s results statement and the value of the research. We used the seven questions and 17 sub-questions related to methods and statement of findings to evaluate the articles. The results of this process are presented in Table 1 .

CASP Questions and Quality Appraisal Results (N = 55)

CASP Questions
• CASP Subquestions
Results
YesNoCan’t tell
Was the research design appropriate to address the aims of the research?
• Did the researcher justify the research design?2647.32850.911.8
Was the recruitment strategy appropriate to the aims of the research?
• Did the researcher explain how the participants were selected?4480610.959.1
Was the data collected in a way that addressed the research issue?
• Was the setting for data collection justified?3156.42138.235.4
• Was it clear how data were collected e.g., focus group, semistructured interview etc.?5510000.000.0
• Did the researcher justify the methods chosen?1323.64174.511.8
• Did the researcher make the methods explicit e.g., for the interview method, was there an indication of how interviews were conducted, or did they use a topic guide?5192.747.300.0
• Was the form of data clear e.g., tape recordings, video materials, notes, etc.?5498.200.011.8
• Did the researcher discuss saturation of data?2036.43563.600.0
Has the relationship between researcher and participants been adequately considered?
• Did the researcher critically examine their own role, potential bias, and influence during data collection, including sample recruitment and choice of location47.35090.911.8
Have ethical issues been taken into consideration?
• Was there sufficient detail about how the research was explained to participants for the reader to assess whether ethical standards were maintained?4989.147.323.6
• Was approval sought from an ethics committee?5192.747.300.0
Was the data analysis sufficiently rigorous?
• Was there an in-depth description of the analysis process?4683.6916.400.0
• Was thematic or content analysis used. If so, was it clear how the categories/themes derived from the data?5192.735.511.8
• Did the researcher critically examine their own role, potential bias and influence during analysis and selection of data for presentation?2036.43054.559.1
Was there a clear statement of findings?
• Were the findings explicit?551000000
• Did the researcher discuss the credibility of their findings (e.g., triangulation)4683.6814.511.8
• Were the findings discussed in relation to the original research question?551000000

Note . The CASP questions are adapted from “10 questions to help you make sense of qualitative research,” by Critical Appraisal Skills Programme, 2013, retrieved from http://media.wix.com/ugd/dded87_29c5b002d99342f788c6ac670e49f274.pdf . Its license can be found at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/

Once articles were assessed by the two authors independently, all three authors discussed and reconciled our assessment. No articles were excluded based on CASP results; rather, results were used to depict the general adequacy (or rigor) of all 55 articles meeting inclusion criteria for our systematic review. In addition, the CASP was included to enhance our examination of the relationship between the methods and the usefulness of the findings documented in each of the QD articles included in this review.

Process for Data Extraction and Analysis

To further assess each of the 55 articles, data were extracted on: (a) research objectives, (b) design justification, (c) theoretical or philosophical framework, (d) sampling and sample size, (e) data collection and data sources, (f) data analysis, and (g) presentation of findings (see Table 2 ). We discussed extracted data and identified common and unique features in the articles included in our systematic review. Findings are described in detail below and in Table 3 .

Elements for Data Extraction

ElementsData Extraction
Research objectives• Verbs used in objectives or aims
• Focuses of study
Design justification• If the article cited references for qualitative description
• If the article offered rationale to choose qualitative description
• References cited
• Rationale reported
Theoretical or philosophical
frameworks
• If the article has theoretical or philosophical frameworks for study
• Theoretical or philosophical frameworks reported
• How the frameworks were used in data collection and analysis
Sampling and sample sizes• Sampling strategies (e.g., purposeful sampling, maximum variation)
• Sample size
Data collection and sources• Data collection techniques (e.g., individual or focus-group interviews, interview guide, surveys, field notes)
Data analysis• Data analysis techniques (e.g., qualitative content analysis, thematic analysis, constant comparison)
• If data saturation was achieved
Presentation of findings• Statement of findings
• Consistency with research objectives

Data Extraction and Analysis Results

Authors
Country
Research
Objectives
Design
justification
Theoretical/
philosophical
frameworks
Sampling/
sample size
Data collection
and data sources
Data analysisFindings

• USA
• Explore
• Responses to
communication
strategies
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
Not reported
(NR)
• Purposive
sampling/
maximum
variation
• 32 family
members
• Interviews
• Observations
• Review of
daily flow sheet
• Demographics
• Inductive and
deductive
qualitative content
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Five themes about
family members’
perceptions of
nursing
communication
approaches

• Sweden
• Describe
• Experiences of
using guidelines
in daily practice
• (-) Reference
• (+) Rationale
• Part of a
research
program
NR• Unspecified
• 8 care
providers
• Semistructured,
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Qualitative content
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
One theme and
seven subthemes
about care
providers’
experiences of
using guidelines in
daily practice

• USA
• Examine
• Culturally
specific views of
processes and
causes of midlife
weight gain
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
Health belief
model and
Kleiman’s
explanatory
model
• Unspecified
• 19 adults
• Semistructured,
individual
interview
• Conventional
content analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Three main
categories (from the
model) and eight
subthemes about
causes of weight
gain in midlife

• Iran
• Explore
• Factors initiating
responsibility
among medical
trainees
• (-) Reference
• (+) Rationale
NR• Convenience,
snowball, and
maximum
variation
sampling
• 15 trainees
and other
professionals
• Semistructured,
individual
interview
• Interview guide
• Conventional
content analysis
• Constant
comparison
• (+) Data saturation
Two themes and
individual and non-
individual-based
factors per theme

• Iran
• Explore
• Factors related
to job satisfaction
and dissatisfaction
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Convenience
sampling
• 85 nurses
• Semistructured
focus group
interviews
• Interview guide
• Thematic analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Three main themes
and associated
factors regarding
job satisfaction and
dissatisfaction

• Norway
• Describe
• Perceptions on
simulation-based
team training
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Strategic
sampling
• 18 registered
nurses
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Inductive content
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
One main category,
three categories,
and six sub-
categories
regarding nurses’
perceptions on
simulation-based
team training

• USA
• Determine
• Barriers and
supports for
attending college
and nursing
school
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Unspecified
• 45 students
• Focus-group
interviews
• Using
Photovoice and
SHOWeD
• Constant
comparison
• (-) Data saturation
Five themes about
facilitators and
barriers

• USA
• Explore
• Reasons for
choosing home
birth and birth
experiences
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 20 women
• Semistructured
focus-group
interviews
• Interview guide
• Field notes
• Qualitative content
analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Five common themes
and concepts about
reasons for choosing
home birth based on
their birth
experiences

• New Zealand
• Explore
• Normal fetal
activity related to
hunger and
satiation
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

• Denzin & Lincoln (2011)
NR• Purposive
sampling
• 19 pregnant
women
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Open-ended
questions
• Inductive
qualitative content
analysis
• Descriptive
statistical analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Four patterns
regarding fetal
activities in
relation to meal
anticipation,
maternal hunger,
maternal meal
consummation,
and maternal
satiety

• Italy
• Explore,
describe, and
compare
• perceptions of
nursing caring
• (+) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposive
sampling
• 20 nurses and
20 patients
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Field notes
during
interviews
• Unspecified
various analytic
strategies including
constant comparison
• (-) Data saturation
Nursing caring
from both patients’
and nurses’
perspectives – a
summary of data in
visible caring and
invisible caring

• Hong Kong
• Address
• How to reduce
coronary heart
disease risks
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
• Secondary
analysis

NR• Convenience
and snowball
sampling
• 105 patients
• Focus-group
interviews
• Interview guide
• Content analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Four categories about
patients’ abilities to
reduce coronary heart
disease

• Taiwan
• Explore
• Reasons for
young–old people
not killing
themselves
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Convenience
sampling
• 31 older
adults
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Observation
with
memos/reflective
journal
• Content analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Six themes regarding
reasons for not
committing to suicide

• USA
• Explore
• Neonatal
intensive care unit
experiences
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
NR• Purposive
sampling and
convenience
sample
• 15 mothers
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Qualitative content
analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Four themes about
participants’
experiences of
neonatal intensive
care unit

• Colombia
• Investigate
• Barriers/facilitators
to implementing
evidence-based
nursing
• (+) Reference
• (-) Rationale
Ottawa model
for research
use:
knowledge
translation
framework
• Convenience
sampling
• 13 nursing
professionals
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Inductive
qualitative content
analysis
• Constant
comparison
• (-) Data saturation
Four main barriers
and potential
facilitators to
evidence-based
nursing

• Australia
• Explore
• Perceptions and
utilization of
diaries
• (+) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Unspecified
• 19 patients
and families
• Responses to
open-ended
questions on
survey
• Unspecified
analysis strategy
• (-) Data saturation
Five themes
regarding perceptions
on use of diaries and
descriptive statistics
using frequencies of
utilization

• USA
• Explore
• Knowledge,
attitudes, and
beliefs about
sexual consent
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
• Part of a larger
mixed-method
study
Theory of
planned
behavior
• Purposive
sampling
• snowball
sampling
• 26 women
• Semistructured
focus-group
interviews
• Interview guide
• Content analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Three main
categories and
subthemes regarding
sexual consent

• Sweden
• Describe
• Experiences of
knowledge
development in
wound
management
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale:
weak
NR• Purposive
sampling
• 16 district
nurses
• Individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Qualitative content
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Three categories and
eleven sub-categories
about knowledge
development
experiences in wound
management

• USA
• Describe
• Parental-pain
journey, beliefs
about pain, and
attitudes/behaviors
related to
children’s
responses
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale


• Part of a larger
mixed methods
study
NR• Purposive
sampling
• 9 parents
• Individual
interviews
• One open-
ended question
• Qualitative content
analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Two main themes,
categories, and
subcategories about
parents’ experiences
of observing
children’s pain

• USA
• Describe
• Challenges and
barriers in
providing
culturally
competent care
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

• Secondary
analysis
NR• Stratified
sampling
• 253 nurses
• Written
responses to 2
open-ended
questions on
survey
• Thematic analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Three themes
regarding
challenges/barriers

• Denmark
• Describe
• Experiences of
childbirth
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
• A substudy
NR• Purposive
sampling with
maximum
variation
• Partners of 10
women
• Semistructured,
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Thematic analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Three themes and
four subthemes about
partners’ experiences
of women’s
childbirth

• Australia
• Explore
• Perceptions
about medical
nutrition and
hydration at the
end of life
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 10 nurses
• Focus-group
interviews
• “analyzed
thematically”
• (-) Data saturation
One main theme and
four subthemes
regarding nurses’
perceptions on EOL-
related medical
nutrition and
hydration

• USA
• Describe
• Reasons for
leaving a home
visiting program
early
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Convenience
sample
• 32 mothers,
nurses, and
nurse
supervisors
• Semistructured,
individual
interviews
• Focus-group
interviews
• Interview guide
• Inductive content
analysis
• Constant
comparison
approach
• (+) Data saturation
Three sets of reasons
for leaving a home
visiting program

• Sweden
• Explore and
describe
• Beliefs and
attitudes around
the decision for a
caesarean section
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

NR• Unspecified
• 21 males
• Individual
telephone
interviews
• Thematic analysis
• Constant
comparison
approach
• (-) Data saturation
Two themes and
subthemes in relation
to the research
objective

• Taiwan
• Explore
• Illness
experiences of
early onset of
knee osteoarthritis
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale


• Part of a large
research series
NR• Purposive
sampling
• 17 adults
• Semistructured,
Individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Memo/field
notes
(observations)
• Inductive content
analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Three major themes
and nine subthemes
regarding
experiences of early
onset-knee
osteoarthritis

• Australia
• Explore
• Perceptions
about bedside
handover (new
model) by nurses
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

NR• Purposive
sampling
• 30 patients
• Semistructured,
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Thematic content
analysis
• (-) Data analysis
Two dominant
themes and related
subthemes regarding
patients’ thoughts
about nurses’ bedside
handover

• Sweden
• Identify
• Patterns in
learning when
living with
diabetes
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposive
sampling with
variations in
age and sex
• 13
participants
• Semistructured,
individual interviews (3
times over 3
years)

analysis process
• Inductive
qualitative content
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Five main patterns of
learning when living
with diabetes for
three years following
diagnosis

• Canada
• Evaluate
• Book chat
intervention based
on a novel
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
• Part of a larger
research project
NR• Unspecified
• 11 long-term-
care staff
• Questionnaire
with two open-
ended questions
• Thematic content
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Five themes (positive
comments) about the
book chat with brief
description

• Taiwan
• Explore
• Facilitators and
barriers to
implementing
smoking-
cessation
counseling
services
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Unspecified
• 16 nurse-
counselors
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Inductive content
analysis
• Constant
comparison
• (-) Data saturation
Two themes and
eight subthemes
about facilitators and
barriers described
using 2-4 quotations
per subtheme

• USA
• Identify
• Educational
strategies to
manage disruptive
behavior
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
• Part of a larger
study
NR• Unspecified
• 9 nurses
• Semistructured,
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Content analysis
procedures
• (-) Data saturation
Two main themes
regarding education
strategies for nurse
educators

• USA
• Explore
• Experiences of
difficulty
resolving patient-
related concerns
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
• Secondary
analysis
NR• Unspecified
• 1932
physician,
nursing, and
midwifery
professionals
• E-mail survey
with multiple-
choice and free-
text responses
• Inductive thematic
analysis
• Descriptive
statistics
• (-) Data saturation
One overarching
theme and four
subthemes about
professionals’
experiences of
difficulty resolving
patient-related
concerns

• Singapore
• Explicate
• Experience of
quality of life for
older adults
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
Parse’s human
becoming
paradigm
• Unspecified
• 10 elderly
residents
• Individual
interviews
• Interview
questions
presented (Parse)
• Unspecified
analysis techniques
• (-) Data saturation
Three themes
presented using both
participants’
language and the
researcher’s language

• China
• Explore
• Perspectives on
learning about
caring
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 20 nursing
students
• Focus-group
interviews
• Interview guide
• Conventional
content analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Four categories and
associated
subcategories about
facilitators and
challenges to learning
about caring

• Poland
• Describe and
assess
• Components of
the patient–nurse
relationship and
pediatric-ward
amenities
• (+) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposeful,
maximum
variation
sampling
• 26 parents or
caregivers and
22 children
• Individual
interviews
• Qualitative content
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Five main topics
described from the
perspectives of
children and parents

• Canada
• Evaluate
• Acceptability
and feasibility of
hand-massage
therapy
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
• Secondary to a
RCT
Focused on
feasibility and
acceptability
• Unspecified
• 40 patients
• Semistructured,
individual
interviews
• Field notes
• Video
recording
• Thematic analysis
for acceptability
• Quantitative
ratings of video
items for feasibility
• (-) Data analysis
Summary of data
focusing on
predetermined
indicators of
acceptability and
descriptive statistics
to present feasibility

• USA
• Understand
• Challenges
occurring during
transitions of care
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

• Part of a larger study
NR• Convenience
sample
• 22 nurses
• Focus groups
• Interview guide
• Qualitative content
analysis methods
• (+) Data analysis
Three themes about
challenges regarding
transitions of care:

• Canada
• Understand
• Factors that
influence nurses’
retention in their
current job
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 41 nurses
• Focus-group
interviews
• Interview guide
• Directed content
analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Nurses’ reasons to
stay and leave their
current job

• Australia
• Extend
• Understanding
of caregivers’
views on advance
care planning
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

• Grounded
theory overtone
NR• Theoretical
sampling
• 18 caregivers
• Semistructured
focus group and
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Vignette
technique
• Inductive, cyclic,
and constant
comparative
analysis
• (-) Data analysis
Three themes
regarding caregivers’
perceptions on
advance care
planning

• USA
• Describe
• Outcomes older
adults with
epilepsy hope to
achieve in
management
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Unspecified
• 20 patients
• Individual
interview
• Conventional
content analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Six main themes and
associated subthemes
regarding what older
adults hoped to
achieve in
management of their
epilepsy

• The Netherlands
• Gain
• Experience of
personal dignity
and factors
influencing it
• (+) Reference
• (-) Rationale
Model of
dignity in
illness
• Maximum
variation
sampling
• 30 nursing
home residents
• Individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Thematic analysis
• Constant
comparison
• (+) Data saturation
The threatening
effect of illness and
three domains being
threatened by illness
in relation to
participants’
experiences of
personal dignity

• USA
• Identify and
describe
• Needs in mental
health services
and “ideal”
program
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

• There is a
primary study
NR• Unspecified
• 52 family
members
• Semistructured,
individual and
focus-group
interviews
• “Standard content
analytic procedures”
with case-ordered
meta-matrix
• (-) Data saturation
Two main topics –
(a) intervention
modalities that would
fit family members’
needs in mental
health services and
(b) topics that
programs should
address

• USA
• “What are the
perceptions of
staff nurses
regarding
palliative
care…?”
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposive,
convenience
sampling
• 18 nurses
• Semistructured
and focus-group
interviews
• Interview guide
• Ritchie and
Spencer’s
framework for data
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Five thematic
categories and
associated
subcategories about
nurses’ perceptions
of palliative care

• Canada
• Describe
• Experience of
caring for a
relative with
dementia
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
• Sandelowski ( ; )
• Secondary
analysis
• Phenomenological
overtone
NR• Purposive
sampling
• 11 bereaved
family
members
• Individual
interviews
• 27 transcripts
from the primary
study
• Unspecified
• (-) Data saturation
Five major themes
regarding the journey
with dementia from
the time prior to
diagnosis and into
bereavement

• Canada
• Describe
Experience of
fetal fibronectin
testing
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

NR• Unspecified
• 17 women
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Conventional
content analysis
• (+) Data saturation
One overarching
theme, three themes,
and six subthemes
about women’s
experiences of fetal
fibronectin testing

• New Zealand
• Explore
• Role of nurses in
providing
palliative and
end-of-life care
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale

• Part of a larger study
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 21 nurses
• Semistructured
individual
interviews
• Thematic analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Three themes about
practice nurses’
experiences in
providing palliative
and end-of-life care

• Brazil
• Understand
• Experience with
postnatal
depression
• (+) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposeful,
criterion
sampling
• 15 women
with postnatal
depression
• Minimally
structured,
individual
interviews
• Thematic analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Two themes –
women’s “bad
thoughts” and their
four types of
responses to fear of
harm (with
frequencies)

• Australia
• Understand
• Experience of
peripherally
inserted central
catheter insertion
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 10 patients
• Semistructured,
individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Thematic analysis
• (+) Data saturation
Four themes
regarding patients’
experiences of
peripherally inserted
central catheter
insertion

• USA
• Discover
• Context, values,
and background
meaning of
cultural
competency
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
Focused on
cultural
competence
• Purposive,
maximum
variation, and
network
• 20 experts
• Semistructured,
individual
interviews
• Within-case and
across-case analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Three themes
regarding cultural
competency

• USA
• Explore and
describe
• Cancer experience
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
NR• Unspecified
• 15 patients
• Longitudinal
individual
interviews (4
time points)
• 40 interviews
• Inductive content
analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Processes and themes
about adolescent
identify work and
cancer identify work
across the illness
trajectory

• Sweden
• Explore
• Experiences of
giving support to
patients during
the transition
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
Focused on
support and
transition
• Unspecified
(but likely
purposeful
sampling)
• 8 nurses
• Semistructured
Individual
interviews
• Interview guide
• Content analysis
• (-) Data saturation
One theme, three
main categories, and
eight associated
categories

• Taiwan
• Describe
• Process of
women’s recovery
from stillbirth
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 21 women
• Individual
interview
techniques
• Inductive analytic
approaches ( )
• (+) Data saturation
Three stages (themes)
regarding the
recovery process of
Taiwanese women
with stillbirth

• Iran
• Describe
• Perspectives of
causes of
medication errors
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 24 nursing
students
• Focus-group
interviews
• Observations
with notes
• Content analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Two main themes
about nursing
students’ perceptions
on causes of
medication errors

• Iran
• Explore
• Image of nursing
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Purposeful
sampling
• 18 male
nurses
• Semistructured
individual,
interviews
• Field notes
• Content analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Two main views
(themes) on nursing
presented with
subthemes per view

• Spain
• Ascertain
• Barriers to
sexual expression
• (-) Reference
• (-) Rationale
NR• Maximum
variation
• 100 staff and
residents
• Semistructured,
individual
interview
• Content analysis
• (-) Data saturation
40% of participants
without identification
of barriers and 60%
with seven most cited
barriers to sexual
expression in the
long-term care setting

• Canada
• Explore
• Perceptions of
empowerment in
academic nursing
environments
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
• Sandelowski ( , )
Theories of
structural
power in
organizations
and
psychological
empowerment
• Unspecified
• 8 clinical
instructors
• Semistructured,
individual
• interview guide
• Unspecified (but
used pre-determined
concepts)
• (+) Data saturation
Structural
empowerment and
psychological
empowerment
described using
predetermined
concepts

• China
• Investigate
• Meaning of life
and health
experience with
chronic illness
• (+) Reference
• (+) Rationale
• Sandelowski ( , )
Positive health
philosophy
• Purposive,
convenience
sampling
• 11 patients
• Individual
interviews
• Observations
of daily behavior
with field notes
• Thematic analysis
• (-) Data saturation
Four themes
regarding the
meaning of life and
health when living
with chronic illnesses

Note . NR = not reported

Quality Appraisal Results

Justification for use of a QD design was evident in close to half (47.3%) of the 55 publications. While most researchers clearly described recruitment strategies (80%) and data collection methods (100%), justification for how the study setting was selected was only identified in 38.2% of the articles and almost 75% of the articles did not include any reason for the choice of data collection methods (e.g., focus-group interviews). In the vast majority (90.9%) of the articles, researchers did not explain their involvement and positionality during the process of recruitment and data collection or during data analysis (63.6%). Ethical standards were reported in greater than 89% of all articles and most articles included an in-depth description of data analysis (83.6%) and development of categories or themes (92.7%). Finally, all researchers clearly stated their findings in relation to research questions/objectives. Researchers of 83.3% of the articles discussed the credibility of their findings (see Table 1 ).

Research Objectives

In statements of study objectives and/or questions, the most frequently used verbs were “explore” ( n = 22) and “describe” ( n = 17). Researchers also used “identify” ( n = 3), “understand” ( n = 4), or “investigate” ( n = 2). Most articles focused on participants’ experiences related to certain phenomena ( n = 18), facilitators/challenges/factors/reasons ( n = 14), perceptions about specific care/nursing practice/interventions ( n = 11), and knowledge/attitudes/beliefs ( n = 3).

Design Justification

A total of 30 articles included references for QD. The most frequently cited references ( n = 23) were “Whatever happened to qualitative description?” ( Sandelowski, 2000 ) and “What’s in a name? Qualitative description revisited” ( Sandelowski, 2010 ). Other references cited included “Qualitative description – the poor cousin of health research?” ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ), “Reaching the parts other methods cannot reach: an introduction to qualitative methods in health and health services research” ( Pope & Mays, 1995 ), and general research textbooks ( Polit & Beck, 2004 , 2012 ).

In 26 articles (and not necessarily the same as those citing specific references to QD), researchers provided a rationale for selecting QD. Most researchers chose QD because this approach aims to produce a straight description and comprehensive summary of the phenomenon of interest using participants’ language and staying close to the data (or using low inference).

Authors of two articles distinctly stated a QD design, yet also acknowledged grounded-theory or phenomenological overtones by adopting some techniques from these qualitative traditions ( Michael, O'Callaghan, Baird, Hiscock, & Clayton, 2014 ; Peacock, Hammond-Collins, & Forbes, 2014 ). For example, Michael et al. (2014 , p. 1066) reported:

The research used a qualitative descriptive design with grounded theory overtones ( Sandelowski, 2000 ). We sought to provide a comprehensive summary of participants’ views through theoretical sampling; multiple data sources (focus groups [FGs] and interviews); inductive, cyclic, and constant comparative analysis; and condensation of data into thematic representations ( Corbin & Strauss, 1990 , 2008 ).

Authors of four additional articles included language suggestive of a grounded-theory or phenomenological tradition, e.g., by employing a constant comparison technique or translating themes stated in participants’ language into the primary language of the researchers during data analysis ( Asemani et al., 2014 ; Li, Lee, Chen, Jeng, & Chen, 2014 ; Ma, 2014 ; Soule, 2014 ). Additionally, Li et al. (2014) specifically reported use of a grounded-theory approach.

Theoretical or Philosophical Framework

In most (n = 48) articles, researchers did not specify any theoretical or philosophical framework. Of those articles in which a framework or philosophical stance was included, the authors of five articles described the framework as guiding the development of an interview guide ( Al-Zadjali, Keller, Larkey, & Evans, 2014 ; DeBruyn, Ochoa-Marin, & Semenic, 2014 ; Fantasia, Sutherland, Fontenot, & Ierardi, 2014 ; Ma, 2014 ; Wiens, Babenko-Mould, & Iwasiw, 2014 ). In two articles, data analysis was described as including key concepts of a framework being used as pre-determined codes or categories ( Al-Zadjali et al., 2014 ; Wiens et al., 2014 ). Oosterveld-Vlug et al. (2014) and Zhang, Shan, and Jiang (2014) discussed a conceptual model and underlying philosophy in detail in the background or discussion section, although the model and philosophy were not described as being used in developing interview questions or analyzing data.

Sampling and Sample Size

In 38 of the 55 articles, researchers reported ‘purposeful sampling’ or some derivation of purposeful sampling such as convenience ( n = 10), maximum variation ( n = 8), snowball ( n = 3), and theoretical sampling ( n = 1). In three instances ( Asemani et al., 2014 ; Chan & Lopez, 2014 ; Soule, 2014 ), multiple sampling strategies were described, for example, a combination of snowball, convenience, and maximum variation sampling. In articles where maximum variation sampling was employed, “variation” referred to seeking diversity in participants’ demographics ( n = 7; e.g., age, gender, and education level), while one article did not include details regarding how their maximum variation sampling strategy was operationalized ( Marcinowicz, Abramowicz, Zarzycka, Abramowicz, & Konstantynowicz, 2014 ). Authors of 17 articles did not specify their sampling techniques.

Sample sizes ranged from 8 to 1,932 with nine studies in the 8–10 participant range and 24 studies in the 11–20 participant range. The participant range of 21–30 and 31–50 was reported in eight articles each. Six studies included more than 50 participants. Two of these articles depicted quite large sample sizes (N=253, Hart & Mareno, 2014 ; N=1,932, Lyndon et al., 2014 ) and the authors of these articles described the use of survey instruments and analysis of responses to open-ended questions. This was in contrast to studies with smaller sample sizes where individual interviews and focus groups were more commonly employed.

Data Collection and Data Sources

In a majority of studies, researchers collected data through individual ( n = 39) and/or focus-group ( n = 14) interviews that were semistructured. Most researchers reported that interviews were audiotaped ( n = 51) and interview guides were described as the primary data collection tool in 29 of the 51 studies. In some cases, researchers also described additional data sources, for example, taking memos or field notes during participant observation sessions or as a way to reflect their thoughts about interviews ( n = 10). Written responses to open-ended questions in survey questionnaires were another type of data source in a small number of studies ( n = 4).

Data Analysis

The analysis strategy most commonly used in the QD studies included in this review was qualitative content analysis ( n = 30). Among the studies where this technique was used, most researchers described an inductive approach; researchers of two studies analyzed data both inductively and deductively. Thematic analysis was adopted in 14 studies and the constant comparison technique in 10 studies. In nine studies, researchers employed multiple techniques to analyze data including qualitative content analysis with constant comparison ( Asemani et al., 2014 ; DeBruyn et al., 2014 ; Holland, Christensen, Shone, Kearney, & Kitzman, 2014 ; Li et al., 2014 ) and thematic analysis with constant comparison ( Johansson, Hildingsson, & Fenwick, 2014 ; Oosterveld-Vlug et al., 2014 ). In addition, five teams conducted descriptive statistical analysis using both quantitative and qualitative data and counting the frequencies of codes/themes ( Ewens, Chapman, Tulloch, & Hendricks, 2014 ; Miller, 2014 ; Santos, Sandelowski, & Gualda, 2014 ; Villar, Celdran, Faba, & Serrat, 2014 ) or targeted events through video monitoring ( Martorella, Boitor, Michaud, & Gelinas, 2014 ). Tseng, Chen, and Wang (2014) cited Thorne, Reimer Kirkham, and O’Flynn-Magee (2004)’s interpretive description as the inductive analytic approach. In five out of 55 articles, researchers did not specifically name their analysis strategies, despite including descriptions about procedural aspects of data analysis. Researchers of 20 studies reported that data saturation for their themes was achieved.

Presentation of Findings

Researchers described participants’ experiences of health care, interventions, or illnesses in 18 articles and presented straightforward, focused, detailed descriptions of facilitators, challenges, factors, reasons, and causes in 15 articles. Participants’ perceptions of specific care, interventions, or programs were described in detail in 11 articles. All researchers presented their findings with extensive descriptions including themes or categories. In 25 of 55 articles, figures or tables were also presented to illustrate or summarize the findings. In addition, the authors of three articles summarized, organized, and described their data using key concepts of conceptual models ( Al-Zadjali et al., 2014 ; Oosterveld-Vlug et al., 2014 ; Wiens et al., 2014 ). Martorella et al. (2014) assessed acceptability and feasibility of hand massage therapy and arranged their findings in relation to pre-determined indicators of acceptability and feasibility. In one longitudinal QD study ( Kneck, Fagerberg, Eriksson, & Lundman, 2014 ), the researchers presented the findings as several key patterns of learning for persons living with diabetes; in another longitudinal QD study ( Stegenga & Macpherson, 2014 ), findings were presented as processes and themes regarding patients’ identity work across the cancer trajectory. In another two studies, the researchers described and compared themes or categories from two different perspectives, such as patients and nurses ( Canzan, Heilemann, Saiani, Mortari, & Ambrosi, 2014 ) or parents and children ( Marcinowicz et al., 2014 ). Additionally, Ma (2014) reported themes using both participants’ language and the researcher’s language.

In this systematic review, we examined and reported specific characteristics of methods and findings reported in journal articles self-identified as QD and published during one calendar year. To accomplish this we identified 55 articles that met inclusion criteria, performed a quality appraisal following CASP guidelines, and extracted and analyzed data focusing on QD features. In general, three primary findings emerged. First, despite inconsistencies, most QD publications had the characteristics that were originally observed by Sandelowski (2000) and summarized by other limited available QD literature. Next, there are no clear boundaries in methods used in the QD studies included in this review; in a number of studies, researchers adopted and combined techniques originating from other qualitative traditions to obtain rich data and increase their understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. Finally, justification for how QD was chosen and why it would be an appropriate fit for a particular study is an area in need of increased attention.

In general, the overall characteristics were consistent with design features of QD studies described in the literature ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ; Sandelowski, 2000 , 2010 ; Vaismoradi et al., 2013 ). For example, many authors reported that study objectives were to describe or explore participants’ experiences and factors related to certain phenomena, events, or interventions. In most cases, these authors cited Sandelowski (2000) as a reference for this particular characteristic. It was rare that theoretical or philosophical frameworks were identified, which also is consistent with descriptions of QD. In most studies, researchers used purposeful sampling and its derivative sampling techniques, collected data through interviews, and analyzed data using qualitative content analysis or thematic analysis. Moreover, all researchers presented focused or comprehensive, descriptive summaries of data including themes or categories answering their research questions. These characteristics do not indicate that there are correct ways to do QD studies; rather, they demonstrate how others designed and produced QD studies.

In several studies, researchers combined techniques that originated from other qualitative traditions for sampling, data collection, and analysis. This flexibility or variability, a key feature of recently published QD studies, may indicate that there are no clear boundaries in designing QD studies. Sandelowski (2010) articulated: “in the actual world of research practice, methods bleed into each other; they are so much messier than textbook depictions” (p. 81). Hammersley (2007) also observed:

“We are not so much faced with a set of clearly differentiated qualitative approaches as with a complex landscape of variable practice in which the inhabitants use a range of labels (‘ethnography’, ‘discourse analysis’, ‘life history work’, narrative study’, ……, and so on) in diverse and open-ended ways in order to characterize their orientation, and probably do this somewhat differently across audiences and occasions” (p. 293).

This concept of having no clear boundaries in methods when designing a QD study should enable researchers to obtain rich data and produce a comprehensive summary of data through various data collection and analysis approaches to answer their research questions. For example, using an ethnographical approach (e.g., participant observation) in data collection for a QD study may facilitate an in-depth description of participants’ nonverbal expressions and interactions with others and their environment as well as situations or events in which researchers are interested ( Kawulich, 2005 ). One example found in our review is that Adams et al. (2014) explored family members’ responses to nursing communication strategies for patients in intensive care units (ICUs). In this study, researchers conducted interviews with family members, observed interactions between healthcare providers, patients, and family members in ICUs, attended ICU rounds and family meetings, and took field notes about their observations and reflections. Accordingly, the variability in methods provided Adams and colleagues (2014) with many different aspects of data that were then used to complement participants’ interviews (i.e., data triangulation). Moreover, by using a constant comparison technique in addition to qualitative content analysis or thematic analysis in QD studies, researchers compare each case with others looking for similarities and differences as well as reasoning why differences exist, to generate more general understanding of phenomena of interest ( Thorne, 2000 ). In fact, this constant comparison analysis is compatible with qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis and we found several examples of using this approach in studies we reviewed ( Asemani et al., 2014 ; DeBruyn et al., 2014 ; Holland et al., 2014 ; Johansson et al., 2014 ; Li et al., 2014 ; Oosterveld-Vlug et al., 2014 ).

However, this flexibility or variability in methods of QD studies may cause readers’ as well as researchers’ confusion in designing and often labeling qualitative studies ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ). Especially, it could be difficult for scholars unfamiliar with qualitative studies to differentiate QD studies with “hues, tones, and textures” of qualitative traditions ( Sandelowski, 2000 , p. 337) from grounded theory, phenomenological, and ethnographical research. In fact, the major difference is in the presentation of the findings (or outcomes of qualitative research) ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ; Sandelowski, 2000 ). The final products of grounded theory, phenomenological, and ethnographical research are a generation of a theory, a description of the meaning or essence of people’s lived experience, and an in-depth, narrative description about certain culture, respectively, through researchers’ intensive/deep interpretations, reflections, and/or transformation of data ( Streubert & Carpenter, 2011 ). In contrast, QD studies result in “a rich, straight description” of experiences, perceptions, or events using language from the collected data ( Neergaard et al., 2009 ) through low-inference (or data-near) interpretations during data analysis ( Sandelowski, 2000 , 2010 ). This feature is consistent with our finding regarding presentation of findings: in all QD articles included in this systematic review, the researchers presented focused or comprehensive, descriptive summaries to their research questions.

Finally, an explanation or justification of why a QD approach was chosen or appropriate for the study aims was not found in more than half of studies in the sample. While other qualitative approaches, including grounded theory, phenomenology, ethnography, and narrative analysis, are used to better understand people’s thoughts, behaviors, and situations regarding certain phenomena ( Sullivan-Bolyai et al., 2005 ), as noted above, the results will likely read differently than those for a QD study ( Carter & Little, 2007 ). Therefore, it is important that researchers accurately label and justify their choices of approach, particularly for studies focused on participants’ experiences, which could be addressed with other qualitative traditions. Justifying one’s research epistemology, methodology, and methods allows readers to evaluate these choices for internal consistency, provides context to assist in understanding the findings, and contributes to the transparency of choices, all of which enhance the rigor of the study ( Carter & Little, 2007 ; Wu, Thompson, Aroian, McQuaid, & Deatrick, 2016 ).

Use of the CASP tool drew our attention to the credibility and usefulness of the findings of the QD studies included in this review. Although justification for study design and methods was lacking in many articles, most authors reported techniques of recruitment, data collection, and analysis that appeared. Internal consistencies among study objectives, methods, and findings were achieved in most studies, increasing readers’ confidence that the findings of these studies are credible and useful in understanding under-explored phenomenon of interest.

In summary, our findings support the notion that many scholars employ QD and include a variety of commonly observed characteristics in their study design and subsequent publications. Based on our review, we found that QD as a scholarly approach allows flexibility as research questions and study findings emerge. We encourage authors to provide as many details as possible regarding how QD was chosen for a particular study as well as details regarding methods to facilitate readers’ understanding and evaluation of the study design and rigor. We acknowledge the challenge of strict word limitation with submissions to print journals; potential solutions include collaboration with journal editors and staff to consider creative use of charts or tables, or using more citations and less text in background sections so that methods sections are robust.

Limitations

Several limitations of this review deserve mention. First, only articles where researchers explicitly stated in the main body of the article that a QD design was employed were included. In contrast, articles labeled as QD in only the title or abstract, or without their research design named were not examined due to the lack of certainty that the researchers actually carried out a QD study. As a result, we may have excluded some studies where a QD design was followed. Second, only one database was searched and therefore we did not identify or describe potential studies following a QD approach that were published in non-PubMed databases. Third, our review is limited by reliance on what was included in the published version of a study. In some cases, this may have been a result of word limits or specific styles imposed by journals, or inconsistent reporting preferences of authors and may have limited our ability to appraise the general adequacy with the CASP tool and examine specific characteristics of these studies.

Conclusions

A systematic review was conducted by examining QD research articles focused on nursing-related phenomena and published in one calendar year. Current patterns include some characteristics of QD studies consistent with the previous observations described in the literature, a focus on the flexibility or variability of methods in QD studies, and a need for increased explanations of why QD was an appropriate label for a particular study. Based on these findings, recommendations include encouragement to authors to provide as many details as possible regarding the methods of their QD study. In this way, readers can thoroughly consider and examine if the methods used were effective and reasonable in producing credible and useful findings.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by the John A. Hartford Foundation’s National Hartford Centers of Gerontological Nursing Excellence Award Program.

Hyejin Kim is a Ruth L. Kirschstein NRSA Predoctoral Fellow (F31NR015702) and 2013–2015 National Hartford Centers of Gerontological Nursing Excellence Patricia G. Archbold Scholar. Justine Sefcik is a Ruth L. Kirschstein Predoctoral Fellow (F31NR015693) through the National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Nursing Research.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

Contributor Information

Hyejin Kim, MSN, CRNP, Doctoral Candidate, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing.

Justine S. Sefcik, MS, RN, Doctoral Candidate, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing.

Christine Bradway, PhD, CRNP, FAAN, Associate Professor of Gerontological Nursing, University of Pennsylvania School of Nursing.

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  1. Types of Research Designs PDF

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  2. (PDF) Selecting the appropriate study design for your research

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  3. Research Design: Descriptive Research

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  5. (PDF) Descriptive Review for Research Paper Format

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  1. Types of Research Design

  2. Marketing Research: Descriptive Research Design

  3. Descriptive Research || Types of Descriptive research || Types of survey

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  5. Descriptive Research Design #researchmethodology

  6. Descriptive Research Design: Key Concepts and Features

COMMENTS

  1. (PDF) Descriptive Research Designs

    A descriptive study design is a research method that observes and describes the behaviour of subjects from a scientific viewpoint with regard to variables of a situation (Sharma, 2019). Here, the ...

  2. PDF Descriptive analysis in education: A guide for researchers

    Box 1. Descriptive Analysis Is a Critical Component of Research Box 2. Examples of Using Descriptive Analyses to Diagnose Need and Target Intervention on the Topic of "Summer Melt" Box 3. An Example of Using Descriptive Analysis to Evaluate Plausible Causes and Generate Hypotheses Box 4.

  3. Research Design: Descriptive Research

    Changes in Body Image Experienced by Adolescents With Cancer. Experiences of Pregnant African American Adolescents: Meanings, Perception, Appraisal, and Coping. Book Reviews : Sweeney, M.A. and Olivieri, P. An Introduction to Nursing Research: Research, Measurement and Computers in Nursing.

  4. Study designs: Part 2

    INTRODUCTION. In our previous article in this series, [1] we introduced the concept of "study designs"- as "the set of methods and procedures used to collect and analyze data on variables specified in a particular research question.". Study designs are primarily of two types - observational and interventional, with the former being ...

  5. (Pdf) Descriptive Research Design

    PDF | Descriptive research is a research method used to try and determine the characteristics of a population or particular phenomenon. | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate

  6. Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods

    Author Affiliation: Senior Nurse Scientist and Clinical Nurse Specialist, Office of Nursing Research & Innovation, Nursing Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Ohio. The author reports no conflicts of interest. Correspondence: Sandra L. Siedlecki, PhD, RN, APRN-CNS, 3271 Stillwater Dr, Medina, OH 44256 ([email protected]).

  7. Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods

    The research design used descriptive analysis and a relational screening model. The sample consisted of 334 students aged 9-12 studying in 3rd and 4th grades in schools in Bakırköy, Istanbul.

  8. Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods

    Understanding Descriptive Research Designs and Methods. Clin Nurse Spec. 2020 Jan/Feb;34 (1):8-12. doi: 10.1097/NUR.0000000000000493.

  9. Descriptive Research and Qualitative Research

    Descriptive research is a study of status and is widely used in education, nutrition, epidemiology, and the behavioral sciences. Its value is based on the premise that problems can be solved and practices improved through observation, analysis, and description. The most common descriptive research method is the survey, which includes ...

  10. (PDF) Research Design

    The design of a study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research ...

  11. Qualitative and descriptive © The Author(s) 2015

    Qualitative research collects data qualitatively, and the method of analysis is also primarily qualitative. This often involves an inductive exploration of the data to identify recurring themes, patterns, or concepts and then describing and interpreting those categories. Of course, in qualitative research, the data collected qualitatively can ...

  12. [PDF] Defining Exploratory-Descriptive Qualitative (EDQ) research and

    To address a specific research aim, the primary author believed that an exploratory descriptive qualitative approach was the most suitable. A subsequent review of the relevant literature identified a number of published research articles, which claimed to use an "exploratory descriptive qualitative" design.

  13. Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis

    Qualitative research collects data qualitatively, and the method of analysis is also primarily qualitative. This often involves an inductive exploration of the data to identify recurring themes, patterns, or concepts and then describing and interpreting those categories. Of course, in qualitative research, the data collected qualitatively can ...

  14. An overview of the qualitative descriptive design within nursing research

    Qualitative descriptive designs are common in nursing and healthcare research due to their inherent simplicity, flexibility and utility in diverse healthcare contexts. However, the application of descriptive research is sometimes critiqued in terms of scientific rigor. Inconsistency in decision making within the research process coupled with a ...

  15. Understanding Research Study Designs

    Ranganathan P. Understanding Research Study Designs. Indian J Crit Care Med 2019;23 (Suppl 4):S305-S307. Keywords: Clinical trials as topic, Observational studies as topic, Research designs. We use a variety of research study designs in biomedical research. In this article, the main features of each of these designs are summarized. Go to:

  16. PDF VOLUME 13 ISSUE 2.2 2018

    2.1 Research Design This study made use of the descriptive research method because it dealt with the analysis of indirectness markers in the written discourse of the subjects under study. Calderon (2006), defined descriptive research as a purposive process of gathering, analyzing, classifying, and tabulating data about prevailing conditions,

  17. (PDF) Title : An Introduction on Descriptive Analysis; Its advantages

    Survey is one of the main form of Descriptive research that is applied to demonstrate the existing phenomenon without manipulating the data, unlike Experimental Research that follows a systematic and logical method for answering the question and manipulation is a deliberate part of the experimental research design (Kothari, 2004, P.120).

  18. (PDF) Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative

    The book Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches by Creswell (2014) covers three approaches-qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. ... Professor Creswell is also one of the founding members of the Journal of Mixed Methods Research. He was a Fulbright scholar in South Africa in 2008 and Thailand in 2012 ...

  19. (PDF) Basics of Research Design: A Guide to selecting appropriate

    2.4 Choosing the correct research design for a research. The essence of research design is to achieve the research objective clearly, objectively, precisely and economically, control extraneous ...

  20. Descriptive Research

    Descriptive research methods. Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research, though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable.. Surveys. Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for frequencies, averages ...

  21. Characteristics of Qualitative Descriptive Studies: A Systematic Review

    Qualitative description (QD) is a label used in qualitative research for studies which are descriptive in nature, particularly for examining health care and nursing-related phenomena (Polit & Beck, 2009, 2014).QD is a widely cited research tradition and has been identified as important and appropriate for research questions focused on discovering the who, what, and where of events or ...

  22. (PDF) Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis

    PDF | On Feb 26, 2015, Hossein Nassaji published Qualitative and descriptive research: Data type versus data analysis | Find, read and cite all the research you need on ResearchGate

  23. Experience and expression of postnatal mothers ...

    A descriptive survey approach was employed, involving a sample size of 100 respondents. The findings revealed that 24% of the surveyed mothers lacked awareness of "KMC" Furthermore, a noteworthy 50% of respondents expressed strong reluctance toward practicing KMC, indicating a prevalent negative perception of the practice among mothers. 11