assignment on brain

Parts of the Brain: Anatomy, Structure & Functions

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

On This Page:

The brain controls all functions of the body, interprets information from the outside world, and defines who we are as individuals and how we experience the world.

The brain receives information through our senses: sight, touch, taste, smell, and hearing. This information is processed in the brain, allowing us to give meaning to the input it receives.

The brain is part of the central nervous system ( CNS ) along with the spinal cord. There is also a peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprised of 31 pairs of spinal nerves that branch from the spinal cord and cranial nerves that branch from the brain.

Brain Parts

The brain is composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. The brain has three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brainstem.

The cerebrum is the largest and most recognizable part of the brain. It consists of grey matter (the cerebral cortex ) and white matter at the center. The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, the left and right, and contains the lobes of the brain (frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes).

The cerebrum produces higher functioning roles such as thinking, learning, memory, language, emotion, movement, and perception.

The Cerebellum

The cerebellum is located under the cerebrum and monitors and regulates motor behaviors, especially automatic movements.

This structure is also important for regulating posture and balance and has recently been suggested for being involved in learning and attention.

Although the cerebellum only accounts for roughly 10% of the brain’s total weight, this area is thought to contain more neurons (nerve cells) than the rest of the brain combined.

The brainstem is located at the base of the brain. This area connects the cerebrum and the cerebellum to the spinal cord, acting as a relay station for these areas.

The brainstem regulates automatic functions such as sleep cycles, breathing, body temperature, digestion, coughing, and sneezing.

Right Brain vs. Left Brain

The cerebrum is divided into two halves: the right and left hemispheres (Fig. 2). The left hemisphere controls the right half of the body, and the right hemisphere controls the left half.

The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum, consisting of about 200 million axons.

The corpus callosum allows the two hemispheres to communicate and allows information being processed on one side of the brain to be shared with the other.

Figure 2. The cerebrum is divided into left and right hemispheres. The nerve fibers corpus callosum connects the two sides.

Hemispheric lateralization is the idea that each hemisphere is responsible for different functions. Each of these functions is localized to either the right or left side.

The left hemisphere is associated with language functions, such as formulating grammar and vocabulary and containing different language centers (Broca’s and Wernicke’s area).

The right hemisphere is associated with more visuospatial functions such as visualization, depth perception, and spatial navigation. These left and right functions are the case in most people, especially those who are right-handed.

Lobes of the Brain

Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes, each associated with different functions.

The four lobes of the brain are the frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes (Figure 3).

Figure 3. The cerebrum is divided into four lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal.

Frontal lobes

The frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead (Figure 4).

Their main functions are associated with higher cognitive functions, including problem-solving, decision-making, attention, intelligence, and voluntary behaviors.

The frontal lobes contain the motor cortex  responsible for planning and coordinating movements.

It also contains the prefrontal cortex, which is responsible for initiating higher-lever cognitive functioning, and Broca’s Area, which is essential for language production.

Figure 4. Frontal lobe structure.

Temporal lobes

The temporal lobes are located on both sides of the brain, near the temples of the head, hence the name temporal lobes (Figure 5).

The main functions of these lobes include understanding, language, memory acquisition, face recognition, object recognition, perception, and auditory information processing.

There is a temporal lobe in both the left and right hemispheres. The left temporal lobe, which is usually the most dominant in people, is associated with language, learning, memorizing, forming words, and remembering verbal information.

The left lobe also contains a vital language center known as Wernicke’s area, which is essential for language development. The right temporal lobe is usually associated with learning and memorizing non-verbal information and determining facial expressions.

Figure 5. Temporal lobe structure.

Parietal lobes

The parietal lobe is located at the top of the brain, between the frontal and occipital lobes, and above the temporal lobes (Figure 6).

The parietal lobe is essential for integrating information from the body’s senses to allow us to build a coherent picture of the world around us.

These lobes allow us to perceive our bodies through somatosensory information (e.g., through touch, pressure, and temperature). It can also help with visuospatial processing, reading, and number representations (mathematics).

The parietal lobes also contain the somatosensory cortex, which receives and processes sensory information, integrating this into a representational map of the body.

This means it can pinpoint the exact area of the body where a sensation is felt, as well as perceive the weight of objects, shape, and texture.

Figure 6. Parietal lobe structure.

Occipital lobes

The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain behind the temporal and parietal lobes and below the occipital bone of the skull (Figure 7).

The occipital lobes receive sensory information from the eyes’ retinas, which is then encoded into different visual data. Some of the functions of the occipital lobes include being able to assess the size, depth, and distance, determine color information, object and facial recognition, and mapping the visual world.

The occipital lobes also contain the primary visual cortex, which receives sensory information from the retinas, transmitting this information relating to location, spatial data, motion, and the colors of objects in the field of vision.

Figure 7. Occipital lobe structure.

Cerebral Cortex

The surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex  and has a wrinkled appearance, consisting of bulges, also known as gyri, and deep furrows, known as sulci (Figure 8).

A gyrus (plural: gyri) is the name given to the bumps and ridges on the cerebral cortex (the outermost layer of the brain). A sulcus (plural: sulci) is another name for a groove in the cerebral cortex.

Figure 8. The cortex contains neurons (grey matter) interconnected to other brain areas by axons (white matter). The cortex has a folded appearance. A fold is called a gyrus, and the valley between is a sulcus.

The cerebral cortex is primarily constructed of grey matter (neural tissue made up of neurons), with between 14 and 16 billion neurons found here.

The many folds and wrinkles of the cerebral cortex allow a wider surface area for an increased number of neurons to live there, permitting large amounts of information to be processed.

Deep Structures

The amygdala is a structure deep in the brain that is involved in the processing of emotions and fear learning. The amygdala is a part of the limbic system, a neural network that mediates emotion and memory (Figure 9).

This structure also ties emotional meaning to memories, processes rewards, and helps us make decisions. This structure has also been linked with the fight-or-flight response.

Figure 9. The amygdala in the limbic system plays a key role in how animals assess and respond to environmental threats and challenges by evaluating the emotional importance of sensory information and prompting an appropriate response.

Thalamus and Hypothalamus

The thalamus relays information between the cerebral cortex, brain stem, and other cortical structures (Figure 10).

Because of its interactive role in relaying sensory and motor information, the thalamus contributes to many processes, including attention, perception, timing, and movement. The hypothalamus modulates a range of behavioral and physiological functions.

It controls autonomic functions such as hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sexual activity. To do this, the hypothalamus integrates information from different brain parts and responds to various stimuli such as light, odor, and stress.

Figure 10. The thalamus is often described as the brain’s relay station as a great deal of information that reaches the cerebral cortex first stops in the thalamus before being sent to its destination.

Hippocampus

The hippocampus is a curved-shaped structure in the limbic system associated with learning and memory (Figure 11).

This structure is most strongly associated with the formation of memories, is an early storage system for new long-term memories, and plays a role in the transition of these long-term memories to more permanent memories.

Figure 11. Hippocampus location in the brain

Basal Ganglia

The basal ganglia are a group of structures that regulate the coordination of fine motor movements, balance, and posture alongside the cerebellum.

These structures are connected to other motor areas and link the thalamus with the motor cortex. The basal ganglia are also involved in cognitive and emotional behaviors, as well as playing a role in reward and addiction.

Figure 12. The Basal Ganglia Illustration

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Within the brain, there are fluid-filled interconnected cavities called ventricles , which are extensions of the spinal cord. These are filled with a substance called cerebrospinal fluid, which is a clear and colorless liquid.

The ventricles produce cerebrospinal fluid and transport and remove this fluid. The ventricles do not have a unique function, but they provide cushioning to the brain and are useful for determining the locations of other brain structures.

Cerebrospinal fluid circulates the brain and spinal cord and functions to cushion the brain within the skull. If damage occurs to the skull, the cerebrospinal fluid will act as a shock absorber to help protect the brain from injury.

As well as providing cushioning, the cerebrospinal fluid circulates nutrients and chemicals filtered from the blood and removes waste products from the brain. Cerebrospinal fluid is constantly absorbed and replenished by the ventricles.

If there were a disruption or blockage, this can cause a build-up of cerebrospinal fluid and can cause enlarged ventricles.

Neurons are the nerve cells of the central nervous system that transmit information through electrochemical signals throughout the body. Neurons contain a soma, a cell body from which the axon extends.

Axons are nerve fibers that are the longest part of the neuron, which conduct electrical impulses away from the soma.

There are dendrites at the end of the neuron, which are branch-like structures that send and receive information from other neurons.

A myelin sheath, a fatty insulating layer, forms around the axon, allowing nerve impulses to travel down the axon quickly.

There are different types of neurons. Sensory neurons transmit sensory information, motor neurons transmit motor information, and relay neurons allow sensory and motor neurons to communicate.

The communication between neurons is called synapses. Neurons communicate with each other via synaptic clefts, which are gaps between the endings of neurons.

During synaptic transmission, chemicals, such as neurotransmitters, are released from the endings of the previous neuron (also known as the presynaptic neuron).

These chemicals enter the synaptic cleft to then be transported to receptors on the next neuron (also known as the postsynaptic neuron).

Once transported to the next neuron, the chemical messengers continue traveling down neurons to influence many functions, such as behavior and movement.

Glial Cells

Glial cells are non-neuronal cells in the central nervous system which work to provide the neurons with nourishment, support, and protection.

These are star-shaped cells that function to maintain the environment for neuronal signaling by controlling the levels of neurotransmitters surrounding the synapses.

They also work to clean up what is left behind after synaptic transmission, either recycling any leftover neurotransmitters or cleaning up when a neuron dies.

Oligodendrocytes

These types of glial have the appearance of balls with spikes all around them. They function by wrapping around the axons of neurons to form a protective layer called the myelin sheath.

This is a substance that is rich in fat and provides insulation to the neurons to aid neuronal signaling.

Microglial cells have oval bodies and many branches projecting out of them. The primary function of these cells is to respond to injuries or diseases in the central nervous system.

They respond by clearing away any dead cells or removing any harmful toxins or pathogens that may be present, so they are, therefore, important to the brain’s health.

Ependymal cells

These cells are column-shaped and usually line up together to form a membrane called the ependyma. The ependyma is a thin membrane lining the spinal cord and ventricles of the brain .

In the ventricles, these cells have small hairlike structures called cilia, which help encourage the flow of cerebrospinal fluid.

Cranial Nerves

There are 12 types of cranial nerves which are linked directly to the brain without having to pass through the spinal cord. These allow sensory information to pass from the organs of the face to the brain:

Mnemonic for Order of Cranial Nerves:

S ome S ay M arry M oney B ut M y B rother S ays B ig B rains M atter M ore

• Cranial I: Sensory
• Cranial II: Sensory
• Cranial III: Motor
• Cranial IV: Motor
• Cranial V: Both (sensory & motor)
• Cranial VI: Motor
• Cranial VII: Both (sensory & motor)
• Cranial VIII: Sensory
• Cranial IX: Both (sensory & motor)
• Cranial X: Both (sensory & motor)
• Cranial XI: Motor
• Cranial XII: Motor

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Mayfield Brain and Spine (n.d.). Anatomy of the Brain. Retrieved July 28, 2021, from: https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm

Robertson, S. (2018, August 23). What is Grey Matter? News Medical Life Sciences. https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-is-Grey-Matter.aspx

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 13). Temporal lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/temporal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 15). Parietal lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/parietal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, April 19). Occipital lobe: definition, functions, and location. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/occipital-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, May 08). Frontal lobe function, location in brain, damage, more. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/frontal-lobe.html

Guy-Evans, O. (2021, June 09). Gyri and sulci of the brain. Simply Psychology. www.www.www.www.www.www.simplypsychology.org/gyri-and-sulci-of-the-brain.html

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Parts of the Brain

Anatomy, Functions, and Conditions

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital.

The Cerebral Cortex

The four lobes, the brain stem, the cerebellum, the limbic system, other parts of the brain, brain conditions, protecting your brain.

The human brain  is not only one of the most important organs in the human body; it is also the most complex. The brain is made up of billions of neurons and it also has a number of specialized parts that are each involved in important functions.

While there is still a great deal that researchers do not yet know about the brain, they have learned a great deal about the anatomy and function of the brain. Understanding these parts can help give people a better idea of how disease and damage may affect the brain and its ability to function.

The cerebral cortex is the part of the brain that makes human beings unique. Functions that originate in the cerebral cortex include:

• Consciousness
• Higher-order thinking
• Imagination
• Information processing
• Voluntary physical action

The cerebral cortex is what we see when we look at the brain. It is the outermost portion that can be divided into four lobes. Each bump on the surface of the brain is known as a gyrus , while each groove is known as a sulcus (gyri and sulci are the plural form).

The cerebral cortex is the largest part of the brain and is responsible for a number of complex functions, including conscious thought, information processing, language, memory, behavior, and personality.

The cerebral cortex can be divided into four sections, known as lobes. The frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe have been associated with different functions ranging from reasoning and memory to auditory and visual perception.

Frontal Lobe

This lobe is located at the front of the brain and is associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher-level cognition, and expressive language.

• At the front of the frontal lobe is the prefrontal cortex , which is responsible for most executive functions , like thinking, paying attention, and self-control. Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to changes in sexual habits, socialization, and attention, as well as increased risk-taking .
• The motor cortex , also known as the motor homunculus  (meaning 'little person'), lies at the back of the frontal lobe, near the central sulcus. It receives information from various lobes of the brain and uses it to carry out body movements like playing the piano, blowing a kiss, and skipping.

Parietal Lobe

The parietal lobe is located in the middle section of the brain, just behind the frontal lobe. It is associated with processing tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain .

A portion of the parietal lobe known as the somatosensory cortex is located just behind the central sulcus and is essential to the processing of the body's senses. It is also known as the somatosensory homunculus .

The homunculus is known as the "little person' in the brain because it has a topographical map of the whole human body in a small area of the cerebral cortex. There is one for the motor cortex in the frontal lobe and one for the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe.

Temporal Lobe

The temporal lobe is located on the bottom section of the brain next to the temples and ears.

• This lobe is also the location of the primary auditory cortex , which is important for interpreting sounds, tones, and frequencies. This cortex has a topographical map of the cochlea, a tiny organ in the inner ear.
• The secondary auditory cortex contains Wernicke's area , which is responsible for understanding spoken or written human language.
• The hippocampus is also located in the temporal lobe, which is why this portion of the brain is also heavily associated with the formation of memories .

Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to problems with memory, sound discrimination, and speech comprehension.

Occipital Lobe

The occipital lobe is located at the back portion of the brain and is associated with interpreting visual stimuli and information. The primary visual cortex , which receives and interprets information from the retinas of the eyes, is located in the occipital lobe.

Damage to this lobe can cause visual problems such as difficulty recognizing objects, an inability to identify colors, and trouble recognizing words.

The brain comprises four lobes, each associated with different functions. The frontal lobe is found at the front of the brain; the parietal lobe is behind the frontal lobe; the temporal lobe is located at the sides of the head; and the occipital lobe is found at the back of the head.

The brainstem is an area located at the base of the brain that contains structures vital for involuntary functions such as heartbeat and breathing. It is comprised of the midbrain, pons, and medulla.

The midbrain is often considered the smallest region of the brain. It acts as a relay station for auditory and visual information and controls many important functions, such as the visual and auditory systems, as well as eye movement.

Portions of the midbrain called the  red nucleus  and the  substantia nigra  are involved in the control of body movement. The darkly pigmented substantia nigra contains a large number of dopamine-producing neurons.

The degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra is associated with Parkinson’s disease.

The medulla is located directly above the spinal cord in the lower part of the brain stem and controls many vital autonomic functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.

The pons, meaning "bridge," connects the cerebral cortex to the medulla and to the cerebellum and serves a number of essential functions. It plays a role in several autonomic processes, such as stimulating breathing and controlling sleep cycles.

The brainstem, which includes the midbrain, medulla, and pons, is responsible for involuntary processes, including breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.

Sometimes referred to as the ​"little brain," the cerebellum lies on top of the pons behind the brain stem. The cerebellum makes up approximately 10% of the brain's total size , but it accounts for more than 50% of the total number of neurons located in the entire brain .

The cerebellum is comprised of small lobes and serves several functions.

• It receives information from the inner ear's balance system, sensory nerves, and auditory and visual systems. It is involved in coordinating movements and motor learning.
• It helps control posture, balance, and the coordination of voluntary movements. This allows different muscle groups to act together and produce coordinated fluid movement.
• It is also important in certain cognitive functions, including speech.

The cerebellum is associated with motor movement and control, but this is not because the motor commands originate here. Instead, the cerebellum modifies these signals and makes motor movements accurate and useful.

The cerebellum is densley packed with neurons and is responsible for managing posture, balance, and the coordination of movement.

Although there is no totally agreed-upon list of the structures that make up the limbic system, four of the main regions include:

The Hypothalamus

The hypothalamus is a grouping of nuclei that lie along the base of the brain near the pituitary gland. It connects with many other regions of the brain and is responsible for controlling hunger, thirst, emotions , body temperature regulation, and circadian rhythms.

The hypothalamus also controls the pituitary gland by secreting hormones. This gives the hypothalamus a great deal of control over many body functions.

The Amygdala

The amygdala is a cluster of nuclei located close to the base of the brain. It is primarily involved in functions including memory, emotion, and the body's fight-or-flight response . The structure processes external stimuli and then relays that information to the hippocampus, which can then prompt a response to deal with outside threats.

The Thalamus

Located above the brainstem, the thalamus processes and transmits movement and sensory information . It is essentially a relay station, taking in sensory information and then passing it on to the cerebral cortex. The cerebral cortex also sends information to the thalamus, which then sends this information to other systems.

The Hippocampus

The hippocampus is a structure located in the temporal lobe. It is important in memory and learning and is considered to be part of the limbic system because it plays an important part in emotional regulation or the control of emotional responses . It plays a role in the body's fight-or-flight response and in the recall of emotional memories.

The limbic system controls behaviors essential for well-being and survival, including emotional regulation, the fight-or-flight response, feeding behavior, and reproduction.

Other important structures play an essential role in supporting the structure and function of the brain. Some of these parts of the brain include:

The meninges are the layers that surround the brain and spinal cord and provide protection. There are three layers of meninges:

• The dura mater : This is the thick, outmost layer located directly under the skull and vertebral column.
• The arachnoid mater : This is a thin layer of web-like connective tissue. Under this layer is cerebrospinal fluid that helps cushion the brain and spinal cord.
• The pia mater : This layer contains veins and arteries and is found directly atop the brain and spinal cord.

The brain also contains 12 cranial nerves. Each nerve plays a vital role in relaying essential information to the brain. These nerves include:

• The olfactory nerve : Essential for the sense of smell
• The optic nerve : Controls eyesight
• The oculomotor nerve : Controls the motions of the eye and the response of the pupil
• The trochlea nerve : Controls the muscles of the eye
• The trigeminal nerve : Carries sensory and motor information to and from the face, jaw, teeth, and scalp
• Abducens nerve : Associated with specific movements of the eye
• Facial nerve : Responsible for sensory and motor functions controlling the face, tongue, tear glands, and parts of the ear
• The vestibulocochlear nerve , which regulates hearing and balance
• The glossopharyngeal nerve : Important for sensory information from parts of the tongue and stimulating specific throat muscles
• The vagus nerve : Plays many important roles, including carrying sensory information from the ear, heart, intestines
• The accessory nerve : Controls the muscles of the neck
• The hypoglossal nerve : Responsible for the muscle movements of the tongue

In addition to the main parts of the brain, there are also other important structures that are important for normal functioning. This includes the protective meninges and the cranial nerves that transmit signals to and from the brain.

The brain can also be affected by a number of conditions and damage. According to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, there are more than 600 types of neurological diseases. Some conditions that can affect the brain and its function include:

• Brain tumors
• Cerebrovascular diseases such as stroke and vascular dementia
• Convulsive disorders such as epilepsy
• Degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease
• Developmental disorders such as cerebral palsy
• Infectious diseases such as AIDS dementia
• Metabolic diseases such as Gaucher's disease
• Neurogenetic diseases, including Huntington's disease and muscular dystrophy
• Trauma such as head injury and spinal cord injury

By studying the brain and learning more about its anatomy and function, researchers are able to develop new treatments and preventative strategies for conditions that affect the brain.

Disease and damage can affect the brain's ability to function. Tumors, strokes, degenerative conditions, trauma, and infectious diseases are just a few of the conditions that can damage the brain.

You can't change your genetics or some other risk factors. But it's important to take steps to help protect the health of your brain.

Diet and Exercise

Research suggests that regular physical activity is essential for brain health. Exercise can help delay brain aging and degenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's, diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. It is also associated with improvements in cognitive abilities and memory.

Similarly, a nutritious, balanced diet that includes omega-3 fatty acids, vitamins, and antioxidants is important for brain function (as well as overall health).

It's also essential to protect your brain from injury by, for example, wearing a helmet when participating in physical activities that pose a risk for collision or falls, and always wearing a seatbelt when driving or riding in a car.

Sleep can also play a pivotal role in brain health and mental well-being . Studies have found that sleep can actually play a role in the development and maintenance of some psychiatric conditions, including anxiety, depression, and bipolar disorder.

Mental Activity

Evidence also suggests that staying mentally engaged can also play an important role in protecting your brain from some degenerative conditions. Activities that may help include learning new things and staying socially active.

Final Thoughts

The human brain is remarkably complex and researchers are still discovering many of the mysteries of how the mind works. By better understanding how different parts of the brain function, you can also better appreciate how disease or injury may impact it. If you think that you are experiencing symptoms of a brain condition, talk to your doctor for further evaluation.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."