problem solving course outcome

Portland Community College | Portland, Oregon

Core outcomes.

• Core Outcomes: Critical Thinking and Problem Solving

Think Critically and Imaginatively

• Engage the imagination to explore new possibilities.
• Formulate and articulate ideas.
• Recognize explicit and tacit assumptions and their consequences.
• Weigh connections and relationships.
• Distinguish relevant from non-relevant data, fact from opinion.
• Identify, evaluate and synthesize information (obtained through library, world-wide web, and other sources as appropriate) in a collaborative environment.
• Reason toward a conclusion or application.
• Understand the contributions and applications of associative, intuitive and metaphoric modes of reasoning to argument and analysis.
• Analyze and draw inferences from numerical models.
• Determine the extent of information needed.
• Access the needed information effectively and efficiently.
• Evaluate information and its sources critically.
• Incorporate selected information into one’s knowledge base.
• Understand the economic, legal, and social issues surrounding the use of information, and access and use information ethically and legally.

Problem-Solve

• Identify and define central and secondary problems.
• Research and analyze data relevant to issues from a variety of media.
• Select and use appropriate concepts and methods from a variety of disciplines to solve problems effectively and creatively.
• Form associations between disparate facts and methods, which may be cross-disciplinary.
• Identify and use appropriate technology to research, solve, and present solutions to problems.
• Understand the roles of collaboration, risk-taking, multi-disciplinary awareness, and the imagination in achieving creative responses to problems.
• Make a decision and take actions based on analysis.
• Interpret and express quantitative ideas effectively in written, visual, aural, and oral form.
• Interpret and use written, quantitative, and visual text effectively in presentation of solutions to problems.

• AB: Auto Collision Repair Technology
• ABE: Adult Basic Education
• AD: Addiction Studies
• AM: Automotive Service Technology
• AMT: Aviation Maintenance Technology
• APR: Apprenticeship
• ARCH: Architectural Design and Drafting
• ASL: American Sign Language
• ATH: Anthropology
• AVS: Aviation Science
• BA: Business Administration
• BCT: Building Construction Technology
• BI: Biology
• BIT: Bioscience Technology
• CADD: Computer Aided Design and Drafting
• CAS/OS: Computer Applications & Web Technologies
• CG: Counseling and Guidance
• CH: Chemistry
• CHLA: Chicano/ Latino Studies
• CHN: Chinese
• CIS: Computer Information Systems
• CJA: Criminal Justice
• CMET: Civil and Mechanical Engineering Technology
• COMM: Communication Studies
• Core Outcomes: Communication
• Core Outcomes: Community and Environmental Responsibility
• Core Outcomes: Cultural Awareness
• Core Outcomes: Professional Competence
• Core Outcomes: Self-Reflection
• CS: Computer Science
• CTT: Computed Tomography
• DA: Dental Assisting
• DE: Developmental Education – Reading & Writing
• DE: Developmental Education – Reading and Writing
• DH: Dental Hygiene
• DS: Diesel Service Technology
• DST: Dealer Service Technology
• DT: Dental Lab Technology
• DT: Dental Technology
• EC: Economics
• ECE/HEC/HUS: Child and Family Studies
• ED: Paraeducator and Library Assistant
• EET: Electronic Engineering Technology
• ELT: Electrical Trades
• EMS: Emergency Medical Services
• ENGR: Engineering
• ESOL: English for Speakers of Other Languages
• ESR: Environmental Studies
• Exercise Science (formerly FT: Fitness Technology)
• FMT: Facilities Maintenance Technology
• FN: Foods and Nutrition
• FOT: Fiber Optics Technology
• FP: Fire Protection Technology
• GD: Graphic Design
• GEO: Geography
• GER: German
• GGS: Geology and General Science
• GRN: Gerontology
• HE: Health Education
• HIM: Health Information Management
• HR: Culinary Assistant Program
• HST: History
• ID: Interior Design
• INSP: Building Inspection Technology
• Integrated Studies
• ITP: Sign Language Interpretation
• J: Journalism
• JPN: Japanese
• LAT: Landscape Technology
• LIB: Library
• Literature (ENG)
• MA: Medical Assisting
• MCH: Machine Manufacturing Technology
• MLT: Medical Laboratory Technology
• MM: Multimedia
• MP: Medical Professions
• MRI: Magnetic Resonance Imaging
• MSD: Management/Supervisory Development
• MT: Microelectronic Technology
• MTH: Mathematics
• MUC: Music & Sonic Arts (formerly Professional Music)
• NRS: Nursing
• OMT: Ophthalmic Medical Technology
• OST: Occupational Skills Training
• PCC Core Outcomes/Course Mapping Matrix
• PE: Physical Education
• PHL: Philosophy
• PHY: Physics
• PL: Paralegal
• PS: Political Science
• PSY: Psychology
• Race, Indigenous Nations, and Gender (RING)
• RAD: Radiography
• RE: Real Estate
• RUS: Russian
• SC: Skill Center
• SOC: Sociology
• SPA: Spanish
• TA: Theatre Arts
• TE: Facilities Maintenance
• VP: Video Production
• VT: Veterinary Technology
• WLD: Welding Technology
• Writing/Composition
• WS: Women’s and Gender Studies

Teaching Commons Autumn Symposium 2024

Get ready for autumn quarter at the Teaching Commons Autumn Symposium. Friday, September 27.

Creating Learning Outcomes

Main navigation.

A learning outcome is a concise description of what students will learn and how that learning will be assessed. Having clearly articulated learning outcomes can make designing a course, assessing student learning progress, and facilitating learning activities easier and more effective. Learning outcomes can also help students regulate their learning and develop effective study strategies.

Defining the terms

Educational research uses a number of terms for this concept, including learning goals, student learning objectives, session outcomes, and more. 

In alignment with other Stanford resources, we will use learning outcomes as a general term for what students will learn and how that learning will be assessed. This includes both goals and objectives. We will use learning goals to describe general outcomes for an entire course or program. We will use learning objectives when discussing more focused outcomes for specific lessons or activities.

For example, a learning goal might be “By the end of the course, students will be able to develop coherent literary arguments.” 

Whereas a learning objective might be, “By the end of Week 5, students will be able to write a coherent thesis statement supported by at least two pieces of evidence.”

Learning outcomes benefit instructors

Learning outcomes can help instructors in a number of ways by:

• Providing a framework and rationale for making course design decisions about the sequence of topics and instruction, content selection, and so on.
• Communicating to students what they must do to make progress in learning in your course.
• Clarifying your intentions to the teaching team, course guests, and other colleagues.
• Providing a framework for transparent and equitable assessment of student learning. 
• Making outcomes concerning values and beliefs, such as dedication to discipline-specific values, more concrete and assessable.
• Making inclusion and belonging explicit and integral to the course design.

Learning outcomes benefit students 

Clearly, articulated learning outcomes can also help guide and support students in their own learning by:

• Clearly communicating the range of learning students will be expected to acquire and demonstrate.
• Helping learners concentrate on the areas that they need to develop to progress in the course.
• Helping learners monitor their own progress, reflect on the efficacy of their study strategies, and seek out support or better strategies. (See Promoting Student Metacognition for more on this topic.)

Choosing learning outcomes

When writing learning outcomes to represent the aims and practices of a course or even a discipline, consider:

• What is the big idea that you hope students will still retain from the course even years later?
• What are the most important concepts, ideas, methods, theories, approaches, and perspectives of your field that students should learn?
• What are the most important skills that students should develop and be able to apply in and after your course?
• What would students need to have mastered earlier in the course or program in order to make progress later or in subsequent courses?
• What skills and knowledge would students need if they were to pursue a career in this field or contribute to communities impacted by this field?
• What values, attitudes, and habits of mind and affect would students need if they are to pursue a career in this field or contribute to communities impacted by this field?
• How can the learning outcomes span a wide range of skills that serve students with differing levels of preparation?
• How can learning outcomes offer a range of assessment types to serve a diverse student population?

Use learning taxonomies to inform learning outcomes

Learning taxonomies describe how a learner’s understanding develops from simple to complex when learning different subjects or tasks. They are useful here for identifying any foundational skills or knowledge needed for more complex learning, and for matching observable behaviors to different types of learning.

Bloom’s Taxonomy

Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical model and includes three domains of learning: cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. In this model, learning occurs hierarchically, as each skill builds on previous skills towards increasingly sophisticated learning. For example, in the cognitive domain, learning begins with remembering, then understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and lastly creating. 

Taxonomy of Significant Learning

The Taxonomy of Significant Learning is a non-hierarchical and integral model of learning. It describes learning as a meaningful, holistic, and integral network. This model has six intersecting domains: knowledge, application, integration, human dimension, caring, and learning how to learn. 

See our resource on Learning Taxonomies and Verbs for a summary of these two learning taxonomies.

How to write learning outcomes

Writing learning outcomes can be made easier by using the ABCD approach. This strategy identifies four key elements of an effective learning outcome:

Consider the following example: Students (audience) , will be able to label and describe (behavior) , given a diagram of the eye at the end of this lesson (condition) , all seven extraocular muscles, and at least two of their actions (degree) .

Audience 

Define who will achieve the outcome. Outcomes commonly include phrases such as “After completing this course, students will be able to...” or “After completing this activity, workshop participants will be able to...”

Keeping your audience in mind as you develop your learning outcomes helps ensure that they are relevant and centered on what learners must achieve. Make sure the learning outcome is focused on the student’s behavior, not the instructor’s. If the outcome describes an instructional activity or topic, then it is too focused on the instructor’s intentions and not the students.

Try to understand your audience so that you can better align your learning goals or objectives to meet their needs. While every group of students is different, certain generalizations about their prior knowledge, goals, motivation, and so on might be made based on course prerequisites, their year-level, or majors. 

Use action verbs to describe observable behavior that demonstrates mastery of the goal or objective. Depending on the skill, knowledge, or domain of the behavior, you might select a different action verb. Particularly for learning objectives which are more specific, avoid verbs that are vague or difficult to assess, such as “understand”, “appreciate”, or “know”.

The behavior usually completes the audience phrase “students will be able to…” with a specific action verb that learners can interpret without ambiguity. We recommend beginning learning goals with a phrase that makes it clear that students are expected to actively contribute to progressing towards a learning goal. For example, “through active engagement and completion of course activities, students will be able to…”

Example action verbs

Consider the following examples of verbs from different learning domains of Bloom’s Taxonomy . Generally speaking, items listed at the top under each domain are more suitable for advanced students, and items listed at the bottom are more suitable for novice or beginning students. Using verbs and associated skills from all three domains, regardless of your discipline area, can benefit students by diversifying the learning experience. 

For the cognitive domain:

• Create, investigate, design
• Evaluate, argue, support
• Analyze, compare, examine
• Solve, operate, demonstrate
• Describe, locate, translate
• Remember, define, duplicate, list

For the psychomotor domain:

• Invent, create, manage
• Articulate, construct, solve
• Complete, calibrate, control
• Build, perform, execute
• Copy, repeat, follow

For the affective domain:

• Internalize, propose, conclude
• Organize, systematize, integrate
• Justify, share, persuade
• Respond, contribute, cooperate
• Capture, pursue, consume

Often we develop broad goals first, then break them down into specific objectives. For example, if a goal is for learners to be able to compose an essay, break it down into several objectives, such as forming a clear thesis statement, coherently ordering points, following a salient argument, gathering and quoting evidence effectively, and so on.

State the conditions, if any, under which the behavior is to be performed. Consider the following conditions:

• Equipment or tools, such as using a laboratory device or a specified software application.
• Situation or environment, such as in a clinical setting, or during a performance.
• Materials or format, such as written text, a slide presentation, or using specified materials.

The level of specificity for conditions within an objective may vary and should be appropriate to the broader goals. If the conditions are implicit or understood as part of the classroom or assessment situation, it may not be necessary to state them. 

When articulating the conditions in learning outcomes, ensure that they are sensorily and financially accessible to all students.

Degree 

Degree states the standard or criterion for acceptable performance. The degree should be related to real-world expectations: what standard should the learner meet to be judged proficient? For example:

• With 90% accuracy
• Within 10 minutes
• Suitable for submission to an edited journal
• Obtain a valid solution
• In a 100-word paragraph

The specificity of the degree will vary. You might take into consideration professional standards, what a student would need to succeed in subsequent courses in a series, or what is required by you as the instructor to accurately assess learning when determining the degree. Where the degree is easy to measure (such as pass or fail) or accuracy is not required, it may be omitted.

Characteristics of effective learning outcomes

The acronym SMART is useful for remembering the characteristics of an effective learning outcome.

• Specific : clear and distinct from others.
• Measurable : identifies observable student action.
• Attainable : suitably challenging for students in the course.
• Related : connected to other objectives and student interests.
• Time-bound : likely to be achieved and keep students on task within the given time frame.

Examples of effective learning outcomes

These examples generally follow the ABCD and SMART guidelines. 

Arts and Humanities

Learning goals.

Upon completion of this course, students will be able to apply critical terms and methodology in completing a written literary analysis of a selected literary work.

At the end of the course, students will be able to demonstrate oral competence with the French language in pronunciation, vocabulary, and language fluency in a 10 minute in-person interview with a member of the teaching team.

Learning objectives

After completing lessons 1 through 5, given images of specific works of art, students will be able to identify the artist, artistic period, and describe their historical, social, and philosophical contexts in a two-page written essay.

By the end of this course, students will be able to describe the steps in planning a research study, including identifying and formulating relevant theories, generating alternative solutions and strategies, and application to a hypothetical case in a written research proposal.

At the end of this lesson, given a diagram of the eye, students will be able to label all of the extraocular muscles and describe at least two of their actions.

Using chemical datasets gathered at the end of the first lab unit, students will be able to create plots and trend lines of that data in Excel and make quantitative predictions about future experiments.

• How to Write Learning Goals , Evaluation and Research, Student Affairs (2021).
• SMART Guidelines , Center for Teaching and Learning (2020).
• Learning Taxonomies and Verbs , Center for Teaching and Learning (2021).

• Open training
• Team training

Critical Thinking and Problem Solving for Effective Decision-Making

Personal effectiveness.

An Essential Competency In Today’s Workplace

Mastering critical thinking and problem-solving skills can help you make better decisions or recommendations- an essential competency in today’s knowledge workplaces. Critical thinking helps you to examine and improve thought processes, ask the right questions, challenge assumptions and consider varying viewpoints. Effective problem-solving helps you to properly identify and systematically work through a problem in a comprehensive manner, ensuring clarity when it comes time to make decisions or recommendations.

This course will demonstrate how critical thinking, problem-solving and decision-making work optimally together, and will provide hands-on practice with tools that you can apply to your everyday workday tasks, big or small.

Learning outcomes

By the end of this workshop, you will be able to:

• Define critical thinking and identify your critical thinking styles
• Work through the critical thinking process to build, analyze and evaluate varying viewpoints
• Improve key critical thinking skills, including active listening and questioning
• Analyze context and information to clearly understand and identify a problem
• Apply problem solving steps and tools
• Identify appropriate solutions using specific approaches
• Select the best technique for making decisions
• Avoid common decision-making mistakes

Workshop topics

Maximizing the Power of Your Brain

• Critical thinking and problem-solving the key to effective decision making
• The Iceberg Principle and the Understanding-Resolution Ration

Critical Thinking

• Definition of a Critical Thinker
• Critical thinking behaviours: active listening, probing, Empty Your Bucket
• Identify and evaluate issues and viewpoints
• The 3 C’s: context, credibility, and consistency
• Critical thinking worksheet- practice it!
• Problem Solving
• The problem-solving process- various models
• Obstacles and counterproductive approaches
• Problem-solving techniques for groups and individuals
• Applying a problem-solving model to a workplace scenario

Decision Making

• Individual and collective decision-making traps
• How to choose: criteria, goals and vision-based decision-making
• Individual and group decision-making tools and techniques
• Decision-making – practical application to a workplace scenario

Prerequisites

There are no prerequisites for this course

Who should attend this course?

Anyone who is required to problem solve on the job or make important project, department or organizational decisions or recommendations

Does this course address your competency development needs?

This workshop addresses:

• Achievement and Results Oriented
• Adaptability and Flexibility
• Analytical Thinking
• Change Management and Leadership
• Creative Thinking
• Decision Making and Decisiveness
• Engagement and Motivation
• Impact and Influence
• Innovation and Initiative
• Self Confidence and Self Esteem
• Strategic Thinking
• Teamwork and Cooperation
• Working with Others

To learn more about core competencies, click here .

$ 595 plus tax

Choose my session

• Instructor: Barbara Odenwald

The advantages of team sessions

• Learn and grow together as a team
• Location and time of your choice
• Sessions can be customized to fit your objectives
• Surprisingly cost effective

Submit your interest

Questions? Let us help

Participant reviews.

“Awesome course, very happy my supervisor signed me up. I look forward to implementing knowledge gained wherever possible in my current role. It will be beneficial in the future as well, should I move to a different role. Thank you!” –Past participant

“I enjoyed how this course was not a large group of people, so discussions and activities were easier and we can hear from everyone in the group. The instructor provided reasonable break periods throughout the course.” –Past participant

“This course really helps bring your sense of awareness and the way you will look at a situation, and how critical thinking can help you make better decisions.” –Past participant

Trusted by Clientele across Canada as a Top Corporate Training Company

Welcome to our new website.

We appreciate your patience as we add the finishing touches. In the meantime, go and explore!

Cookie Usage Disclaimer: This website uses cookies to enhance your browsing experience. By continuing to use this site, you consent to our use of cookies. For more information, please review our Privacy Policy .

Hello! We'd love to hear from you!

Complete the form below or reach us at: [email protected] , or 613-234-2020

Contact details

To help you.

• I wish to subscribe to PMC Training content.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Review Article
• Open access
• Published: 11 January 2023

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature

• Enwei Xu   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-6424-8169 1 ,
• Wei Wang 1 &
• Qingxia Wang 1  

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  10 , Article number:  16 ( 2023 ) Cite this article

19k Accesses

21 Citations

3 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Science, technology and society

Collaborative problem-solving has been widely embraced in the classroom instruction of critical thinking, which is regarded as the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education as well as a key competence for learners in the 21st century. However, the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking remains uncertain. This current research presents the major findings of a meta-analysis of 36 pieces of the literature revealed in worldwide educational periodicals during the 21st century to identify the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and to determine, based on evidence, whether and to what extent collaborative problem solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. The findings show that (1) collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster students’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]); (2) in respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem solving can significantly and successfully enhance students’ attitudinal tendencies (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI[0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI[0.58, 0.82]); and (3) the teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01) all have an impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. On the basis of these results, recommendations are made for further study and instruction to better support students’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Similar content being viewed by others

A meta-analysis of the effects of design thinking on student learning

Fostering twenty-first century skills among primary school students through math project-based learning

A meta-analysis to gauge the impact of pedagogies employed in mixed-ability high school biology classrooms

Introduction.

Although critical thinking has a long history in research, the concept of critical thinking, which is regarded as an essential competence for learners in the 21st century, has recently attracted more attention from researchers and teaching practitioners (National Research Council, 2012 ). Critical thinking should be the core of curriculum reform based on key competencies in the field of education (Peng and Deng, 2017 ) because students with critical thinking can not only understand the meaning of knowledge but also effectively solve practical problems in real life even after knowledge is forgotten (Kek and Huijser, 2011 ). The definition of critical thinking is not universal (Ennis, 1989 ; Castle, 2009 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). In general, the definition of critical thinking is a self-aware and self-regulated thought process (Facione, 1990 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). It refers to the cognitive skills needed to interpret, analyze, synthesize, reason, and evaluate information as well as the attitudinal tendency to apply these abilities (Halpern, 2001 ). The view that critical thinking can be taught and learned through curriculum teaching has been widely supported by many researchers (e.g., Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), leading to educators’ efforts to foster it among students. In the field of teaching practice, there are three types of courses for teaching critical thinking (Ennis, 1989 ). The first is an independent curriculum in which critical thinking is taught and cultivated without involving the knowledge of specific disciplines; the second is an integrated curriculum in which critical thinking is integrated into the teaching of other disciplines as a clear teaching goal; and the third is a mixed curriculum in which critical thinking is taught in parallel to the teaching of other disciplines for mixed teaching training. Furthermore, numerous measuring tools have been developed by researchers and educators to measure critical thinking in the context of teaching practice. These include standardized measurement tools, such as WGCTA, CCTST, CCTT, and CCTDI, which have been verified by repeated experiments and are considered effective and reliable by international scholars (Facione and Facione, 1992 ). In short, descriptions of critical thinking, including its two dimensions of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, different types of teaching courses, and standardized measurement tools provide a complex normative framework for understanding, teaching, and evaluating critical thinking.

Cultivating critical thinking in curriculum teaching can start with a problem, and one of the most popular critical thinking instructional approaches is problem-based learning (Liu et al., 2020 ). Duch et al. ( 2001 ) noted that problem-based learning in group collaboration is progressive active learning, which can improve students’ critical thinking and problem-solving skills. Collaborative problem-solving is the organic integration of collaborative learning and problem-based learning, which takes learners as the center of the learning process and uses problems with poor structure in real-world situations as the starting point for the learning process (Liang et al., 2017 ). Students learn the knowledge needed to solve problems in a collaborative group, reach a consensus on problems in the field, and form solutions through social cooperation methods, such as dialogue, interpretation, questioning, debate, negotiation, and reflection, thus promoting the development of learners’ domain knowledge and critical thinking (Cindy, 2004 ; Liang et al., 2017 ).

Collaborative problem-solving has been widely used in the teaching practice of critical thinking, and several studies have attempted to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical literature on critical thinking from various perspectives. However, little attention has been paid to the impact of collaborative problem-solving on critical thinking. Therefore, the best approach for developing and enhancing critical thinking throughout collaborative problem-solving is to examine how to implement critical thinking instruction; however, this issue is still unexplored, which means that many teachers are incapable of better instructing critical thinking (Leng and Lu, 2020 ; Niu et al., 2013 ). For example, Huber ( 2016 ) provided the meta-analysis findings of 71 publications on gaining critical thinking over various time frames in college with the aim of determining whether critical thinking was truly teachable. These authors found that learners significantly improve their critical thinking while in college and that critical thinking differs with factors such as teaching strategies, intervention duration, subject area, and teaching type. The usefulness of collaborative problem-solving in fostering students’ critical thinking, however, was not determined by this study, nor did it reveal whether there existed significant variations among the different elements. A meta-analysis of 31 pieces of educational literature was conducted by Liu et al. ( 2020 ) to assess the impact of problem-solving on college students’ critical thinking. These authors found that problem-solving could promote the development of critical thinking among college students and proposed establishing a reasonable group structure for problem-solving in a follow-up study to improve students’ critical thinking. Additionally, previous empirical studies have reached inconclusive and even contradictory conclusions about whether and to what extent collaborative problem-solving increases or decreases critical thinking levels. As an illustration, Yang et al. ( 2008 ) carried out an experiment on the integrated curriculum teaching of college students based on a web bulletin board with the goal of fostering participants’ critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These authors’ research revealed that through sharing, debating, examining, and reflecting on various experiences and ideas, collaborative problem-solving can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking in real-life problem situations. In contrast, collaborative problem-solving had a positive impact on learners’ interaction and could improve learning interest and motivation but could not significantly improve students’ critical thinking when compared to traditional classroom teaching, according to research by Naber and Wyatt ( 2014 ) and Sendag and Odabasi ( 2009 ) on undergraduate and high school students, respectively.

The above studies show that there is inconsistency regarding the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking. Therefore, it is essential to conduct a thorough and trustworthy review to detect and decide whether and to what degree collaborative problem-solving can result in a rise or decrease in critical thinking. Meta-analysis is a quantitative analysis approach that is utilized to examine quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. This approach characterizes the effectiveness of its impact by averaging the effect sizes of numerous qualitative studies in an effort to reduce the uncertainty brought on by independent research and produce more conclusive findings (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ).

This paper used a meta-analytic approach and carried out a meta-analysis to examine the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking in order to make a contribution to both research and practice. The following research questions were addressed by this meta-analysis:

What is the overall effect size of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills)?

How are the disparities between the study conclusions impacted by various moderating variables if the impacts of various experimental designs in the included studies are heterogeneous?

This research followed the strict procedures (e.g., database searching, identification, screening, eligibility, merging, duplicate removal, and analysis of included studies) of Cooper’s ( 2010 ) proposed meta-analysis approach for examining quantitative data from various separate studies that are all focused on the same research topic. The relevant empirical research that appeared in worldwide educational periodicals within the 21st century was subjected to this meta-analysis using Rev-Man 5.4. The consistency of the data extracted separately by two researchers was tested using Cohen’s kappa coefficient, and a publication bias test and a heterogeneity test were run on the sample data to ascertain the quality of this meta-analysis.

Data sources and search strategies

There were three stages to the data collection process for this meta-analysis, as shown in Fig. 1 , which shows the number of articles included and eliminated during the selection process based on the statement and study eligibility criteria.

This flowchart shows the number of records identified, included and excluded in the article.

First, the databases used to systematically search for relevant articles were the journal papers of the Web of Science Core Collection and the Chinese Core source journal, as well as the Chinese Social Science Citation Index (CSSCI) source journal papers included in CNKI. These databases were selected because they are credible platforms that are sources of scholarly and peer-reviewed information with advanced search tools and contain literature relevant to the subject of our topic from reliable researchers and experts. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the Web of Science was “TS = (((“critical thinking” or “ct” and “pretest” or “posttest”) or (“critical thinking” or “ct” and “control group” or “quasi experiment” or “experiment”)) and (“collaboration” or “collaborative learning” or “CSCL”) and (“problem solving” or “problem-based learning” or “PBL”))”. The research area was “Education Educational Research”, and the search period was “January 1, 2000, to December 30, 2021”. A total of 412 papers were obtained. The search string with the Boolean operator used in the CNKI was “SU = (‘critical thinking’*‘collaboration’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘collaborative learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘CSCL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem solving’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem-based learning’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘PBL’ + ‘critical thinking’*‘problem oriented’) AND FT = (‘experiment’ + ‘quasi experiment’ + ‘pretest’ + ‘posttest’ + ‘empirical study’)” (translated into Chinese when searching). A total of 56 studies were found throughout the search period of “January 2000 to December 2021”. From the databases, all duplicates and retractions were eliminated before exporting the references into Endnote, a program for managing bibliographic references. In all, 466 studies were found.

Second, the studies that matched the inclusion and exclusion criteria for the meta-analysis were chosen by two researchers after they had reviewed the abstracts and titles of the gathered articles, yielding a total of 126 studies.

Third, two researchers thoroughly reviewed each included article’s whole text in accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Meanwhile, a snowball search was performed using the references and citations of the included articles to ensure complete coverage of the articles. Ultimately, 36 articles were kept.

Two researchers worked together to carry out this entire process, and a consensus rate of almost 94.7% was reached after discussion and negotiation to clarify any emerging differences.

Eligibility criteria

Since not all the retrieved studies matched the criteria for this meta-analysis, eligibility criteria for both inclusion and exclusion were developed as follows:

The publication language of the included studies was limited to English and Chinese, and the full text could be obtained. Articles that did not meet the publication language and articles not published between 2000 and 2021 were excluded.

The research design of the included studies must be empirical and quantitative studies that can assess the effect of collaborative problem-solving on the development of critical thinking. Articles that could not identify the causal mechanisms by which collaborative problem-solving affects critical thinking, such as review articles and theoretical articles, were excluded.

The research method of the included studies must feature a randomized control experiment or a quasi-experiment, or a natural experiment, which have a higher degree of internal validity with strong experimental designs and can all plausibly provide evidence that critical thinking and collaborative problem-solving are causally related. Articles with non-experimental research methods, such as purely correlational or observational studies, were excluded.

The participants of the included studies were only students in school, including K-12 students and college students. Articles in which the participants were non-school students, such as social workers or adult learners, were excluded.

The research results of the included studies must mention definite signs that may be utilized to gauge critical thinking’s impact (e.g., sample size, mean value, or standard deviation). Articles that lacked specific measurement indicators for critical thinking and could not calculate the effect size were excluded.

Data coding design

In order to perform a meta-analysis, it is necessary to collect the most important information from the articles, codify that information’s properties, and convert descriptive data into quantitative data. Therefore, this study designed a data coding template (see Table 1 ). Ultimately, 16 coding fields were retained.

The designed data-coding template consisted of three pieces of information. Basic information about the papers was included in the descriptive information: the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper.

The variable information for the experimental design had three variables: the independent variable (instruction method), the dependent variable (critical thinking), and the moderating variable (learning stage, teaching type, intervention duration, learning scaffold, group size, measuring tool, and subject area). Depending on the topic of this study, the intervention strategy, as the independent variable, was coded into collaborative and non-collaborative problem-solving. The dependent variable, critical thinking, was coded as a cognitive skill and an attitudinal tendency. And seven moderating variables were created by grouping and combining the experimental design variables discovered within the 36 studies (see Table 1 ), where learning stages were encoded as higher education, high school, middle school, and primary school or lower; teaching types were encoded as mixed courses, integrated courses, and independent courses; intervention durations were encoded as 0–1 weeks, 1–4 weeks, 4–12 weeks, and more than 12 weeks; group sizes were encoded as 2–3 persons, 4–6 persons, 7–10 persons, and more than 10 persons; learning scaffolds were encoded as teacher-supported learning scaffold, technique-supported learning scaffold, and resource-supported learning scaffold; measuring tools were encoded as standardized measurement tools (e.g., WGCTA, CCTT, CCTST, and CCTDI) and self-adapting measurement tools (e.g., modified or made by researchers); and subject areas were encoded according to the specific subjects used in the 36 included studies.

The data information contained three metrics for measuring critical thinking: sample size, average value, and standard deviation. It is vital to remember that studies with various experimental designs frequently adopt various formulas to determine the effect size. And this paper used Morris’ proposed standardized mean difference (SMD) calculation formula ( 2008 , p. 369; see Supplementary Table S3 ).

Procedure for extracting and coding data

According to the data coding template (see Table 1 ), the 36 papers’ information was retrieved by two researchers, who then entered them into Excel (see Supplementary Table S1 ). The results of each study were extracted separately in the data extraction procedure if an article contained numerous studies on critical thinking, or if a study assessed different critical thinking dimensions. For instance, Tiwari et al. ( 2010 ) used four time points, which were viewed as numerous different studies, to examine the outcomes of critical thinking, and Chen ( 2013 ) included the two outcome variables of attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills, which were regarded as two studies. After discussion and negotiation during data extraction, the two researchers’ consistency test coefficients were roughly 93.27%. Supplementary Table S2 details the key characteristics of the 36 included articles with 79 effect quantities, including descriptive information (e.g., the publishing year, author, serial number, and title of the paper), variable information (e.g., independent variables, dependent variables, and moderating variables), and data information (e.g., mean values, standard deviations, and sample size). Following that, testing for publication bias and heterogeneity was done on the sample data using the Rev-Man 5.4 software, and then the test results were used to conduct a meta-analysis.

Publication bias test

When the sample of studies included in a meta-analysis does not accurately reflect the general status of research on the relevant subject, publication bias is said to be exhibited in this research. The reliability and accuracy of the meta-analysis may be impacted by publication bias. Due to this, the meta-analysis needs to check the sample data for publication bias (Stewart et al., 2006 ). A popular method to check for publication bias is the funnel plot; and it is unlikely that there will be publishing bias when the data are equally dispersed on either side of the average effect size and targeted within the higher region. The data are equally dispersed within the higher portion of the efficient zone, consistent with the funnel plot connected with this analysis (see Fig. 2 ), indicating that publication bias is unlikely in this situation.

This funnel plot shows the result of publication bias of 79 effect quantities across 36 studies.

Heterogeneity test

To select the appropriate effect models for the meta-analysis, one might use the results of a heterogeneity test on the data effect sizes. In a meta-analysis, it is common practice to gauge the degree of data heterogeneity using the I 2 value, and I 2  ≥ 50% is typically understood to denote medium-high heterogeneity, which calls for the adoption of a random effect model; if not, a fixed effect model ought to be applied (Lipsey and Wilson, 2001 ). The findings of the heterogeneity test in this paper (see Table 2 ) revealed that I 2 was 86% and displayed significant heterogeneity ( P  < 0.01). To ensure accuracy and reliability, the overall effect size ought to be calculated utilizing the random effect model.

The analysis of the overall effect size

This meta-analysis utilized a random effect model to examine 79 effect quantities from 36 studies after eliminating heterogeneity. In accordance with Cohen’s criterion (Cohen, 1992 ), it is abundantly clear from the analysis results, which are shown in the forest plot of the overall effect (see Fig. 3 ), that the cumulative impact size of cooperative problem-solving is 0.82, which is statistically significant ( z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]), and can encourage learners to practice critical thinking.

This forest plot shows the analysis result of the overall effect size across 36 studies.

In addition, this study examined two distinct dimensions of critical thinking to better understand the precise contributions that collaborative problem-solving makes to the growth of critical thinking. The findings (see Table 3 ) indicate that collaborative problem-solving improves cognitive skills (ES = 0.70) and attitudinal tendency (ES = 1.17), with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 7.95, P  < 0.01). Although collaborative problem-solving improves both dimensions of critical thinking, it is essential to point out that the improvements in students’ attitudinal tendency are much more pronounced and have a significant comprehensive effect (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]), whereas gains in learners’ cognitive skill are slightly improved and are just above average. (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

The analysis of moderator effect size

The whole forest plot’s 79 effect quantities underwent a two-tailed test, which revealed significant heterogeneity ( I 2  = 86%, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01), indicating differences between various effect sizes that may have been influenced by moderating factors other than sampling error. Therefore, exploring possible moderating factors that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis, such as the learning stage, learning scaffold, teaching type, group size, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, in order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking. The findings (see Table 4 ) indicate that various moderating factors have advantageous effects on critical thinking. In this situation, the subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01), and teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05) are all significant moderators that can be applied to support the cultivation of critical thinking. However, since the learning stage and the measuring tools did not significantly differ among intergroup (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05, and chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05), we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving. These are the precise outcomes, as follows:

Various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively, without significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05). High school was first on the list of effect sizes (ES = 1.36, P  < 0.01), then higher education (ES = 0.78, P  < 0.01), and middle school (ES = 0.73, P  < 0.01). These results show that, despite the learning stage’s beneficial influence on cultivating learners’ critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is essential for cultivating critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Different teaching types had varying degrees of positive impact on critical thinking, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05). The effect size was ranked as follows: mixed courses (ES = 1.34, P  < 0.01), integrated courses (ES = 0.81, P  < 0.01), and independent courses (ES = 0.27, P  < 0.01). These results indicate that the most effective approach to cultivate critical thinking utilizing collaborative problem solving is through the teaching type of mixed courses.

Various intervention durations significantly improved critical thinking, and there were significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01). The effect sizes related to this variable showed a tendency to increase with longer intervention durations. The improvement in critical thinking reached a significant level (ES = 0.85, P  < 0.01) after more than 12 weeks of training. These findings indicate that the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated, with a longer intervention duration having a greater effect.

Different learning scaffolds influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01). The resource-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.69, P  < 0.01) acquired a medium-to-higher level of impact, the technique-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.63, P  < 0.01) also attained a medium-to-higher level of impact, and the teacher-supported learning scaffold (ES = 0.92, P  < 0.01) displayed a high level of significant impact. These results show that the learning scaffold with teacher support has the greatest impact on cultivating critical thinking.

Various group sizes influenced critical thinking positively, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05). Critical thinking showed a general declining trend with increasing group size. The overall effect size of 2–3 people in this situation was the biggest (ES = 0.99, P  < 0.01), and when the group size was greater than 7 people, the improvement in critical thinking was at the lower-middle level (ES < 0.5, P  < 0.01). These results show that the impact on critical thinking is positively connected with group size, and as group size grows, so does the overall impact.

Various measuring tools influenced critical thinking positively, with significant intergroup differences (chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05). In this situation, the self-adapting measurement tools obtained an upper-medium level of effect (ES = 0.78), whereas the complete effect size of the standardized measurement tools was the largest, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 0.84, P  < 0.01). These results show that, despite the beneficial influence of the measuring tool on cultivating critical thinking, we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Different subject areas had a greater impact on critical thinking, and the intergroup differences were statistically significant (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05). Mathematics had the greatest overall impact, achieving a significant level of effect (ES = 1.68, P  < 0.01), followed by science (ES = 1.25, P  < 0.01) and medical science (ES = 0.87, P  < 0.01), both of which also achieved a significant level of effect. Programming technology was the least effective (ES = 0.39, P  < 0.01), only having a medium-low degree of effect compared to education (ES = 0.72, P  < 0.01) and other fields (such as language, art, and social sciences) (ES = 0.58, P  < 0.01). These results suggest that scientific fields (e.g., mathematics, science) may be the most effective subject areas for cultivating critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

According to this meta-analysis, using collaborative problem-solving as an intervention strategy in critical thinking teaching has a considerable amount of impact on cultivating learners’ critical thinking as a whole and has a favorable promotional effect on the two dimensions of critical thinking. According to certain studies, collaborative problem solving, the most frequently used critical thinking teaching strategy in curriculum instruction can considerably enhance students’ critical thinking (e.g., Liang et al., 2017 ; Liu et al., 2020 ; Cindy, 2004 ). This meta-analysis provides convergent data support for the above research views. Thus, the findings of this meta-analysis not only effectively address the first research query regarding the overall effect of cultivating critical thinking and its impact on the two dimensions of critical thinking (i.e., attitudinal tendency and cognitive skills) utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving, but also enhance our confidence in cultivating critical thinking by using collaborative problem-solving intervention approach in the context of classroom teaching.

Furthermore, the associated improvements in attitudinal tendency are much stronger, but the corresponding improvements in cognitive skill are only marginally better. According to certain studies, cognitive skill differs from the attitudinal tendency in classroom instruction; the cultivation and development of the former as a key ability is a process of gradual accumulation, while the latter as an attitude is affected by the context of the teaching situation (e.g., a novel and exciting teaching approach, challenging and rewarding tasks) (Halpern, 2001 ; Wei and Hong, 2022 ). Collaborative problem-solving as a teaching approach is exciting and interesting, as well as rewarding and challenging; because it takes the learners as the focus and examines problems with poor structure in real situations, and it can inspire students to fully realize their potential for problem-solving, which will significantly improve their attitudinal tendency toward solving problems (Liu et al., 2020 ). Similar to how collaborative problem-solving influences attitudinal tendency, attitudinal tendency impacts cognitive skill when attempting to solve a problem (Liu et al., 2020 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ), and stronger attitudinal tendencies are associated with improved learning achievement and cognitive ability in students (Sison, 2008 ; Zhang et al., 2022 ). It can be seen that the two specific dimensions of critical thinking as well as critical thinking as a whole are affected by collaborative problem-solving, and this study illuminates the nuanced links between cognitive skills and attitudinal tendencies with regard to these two dimensions of critical thinking. To fully develop students’ capacity for critical thinking, future empirical research should pay closer attention to cognitive skills.

The moderating effects of collaborative problem solving with regard to teaching critical thinking

In order to further explore the key factors that influence critical thinking, exploring possible moderating effects that might produce considerable heterogeneity was done using subgroup analysis. The findings show that the moderating factors, such as the teaching type, learning stage, group size, learning scaffold, duration of the intervention, measuring tool, and the subject area included in the 36 experimental designs, could all support the cultivation of collaborative problem-solving in critical thinking. Among them, the effect size differences between the learning stage and measuring tool are not significant, which does not explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

In terms of the learning stage, various learning stages influenced critical thinking positively without significant intergroup differences, indicating that we are unable to explain why it is crucial in fostering the growth of critical thinking.

Although high education accounts for 70.89% of all empirical studies performed by researchers, high school may be the appropriate learning stage to foster students’ critical thinking by utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving since it has the largest overall effect size. This phenomenon may be related to student’s cognitive development, which needs to be further studied in follow-up research.

With regard to teaching type, mixed course teaching may be the best teaching method to cultivate students’ critical thinking. Relevant studies have shown that in the actual teaching process if students are trained in thinking methods alone, the methods they learn are isolated and divorced from subject knowledge, which is not conducive to their transfer of thinking methods; therefore, if students’ thinking is trained only in subject teaching without systematic method training, it is challenging to apply to real-world circumstances (Ruggiero, 2012 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Teaching critical thinking as mixed course teaching in parallel to other subject teachings can achieve the best effect on learners’ critical thinking, and explicit critical thinking instruction is more effective than less explicit critical thinking instruction (Bensley and Spero, 2014 ).

In terms of the intervention duration, with longer intervention times, the overall effect size shows an upward tendency. Thus, the intervention duration and critical thinking’s impact are positively correlated. Critical thinking, as a key competency for students in the 21st century, is difficult to get a meaningful improvement in a brief intervention duration. Instead, it could be developed over a lengthy period of time through consistent teaching and the progressive accumulation of knowledge (Halpern, 2001 ; Hu and Liu, 2015 ). Therefore, future empirical studies ought to take these restrictions into account throughout a longer period of critical thinking instruction.

With regard to group size, a group size of 2–3 persons has the highest effect size, and the comprehensive effect size decreases with increasing group size in general. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a group composed of two to four members is most appropriate for collaborative learning (Schellens and Valcke, 2006 ). However, the meta-analysis results also indicate that once the group size exceeds 7 people, small groups cannot produce better interaction and performance than large groups. This may be because the learning scaffolds of technique support, resource support, and teacher support improve the frequency and effectiveness of interaction among group members, and a collaborative group with more members may increase the diversity of views, which is helpful to cultivate critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

With regard to the learning scaffold, the three different kinds of learning scaffolds can all enhance critical thinking. Among them, the teacher-supported learning scaffold has the largest overall effect size, demonstrating the interdependence of effective learning scaffolds and collaborative problem-solving. This outcome is in line with some research findings; as an example, a successful strategy is to encourage learners to collaborate, come up with solutions, and develop critical thinking skills by using learning scaffolds (Reiser, 2004 ; Xu et al., 2022 ); learning scaffolds can lower task complexity and unpleasant feelings while also enticing students to engage in learning activities (Wood et al., 2006 ); learning scaffolds are designed to assist students in using learning approaches more successfully to adapt the collaborative problem-solving process, and the teacher-supported learning scaffolds have the greatest influence on critical thinking in this process because they are more targeted, informative, and timely (Xu et al., 2022 ).

With respect to the measuring tool, despite the fact that standardized measurement tools (such as the WGCTA, CCTT, and CCTST) have been acknowledged as trustworthy and effective by worldwide experts, only 54.43% of the research included in this meta-analysis adopted them for assessment, and the results indicated no intergroup differences. These results suggest that not all teaching circumstances are appropriate for measuring critical thinking using standardized measurement tools. “The measuring tools for measuring thinking ability have limits in assessing learners in educational situations and should be adapted appropriately to accurately assess the changes in learners’ critical thinking.”, according to Simpson and Courtney ( 2002 , p. 91). As a result, in order to more fully and precisely gauge how learners’ critical thinking has evolved, we must properly modify standardized measuring tools based on collaborative problem-solving learning contexts.

With regard to the subject area, the comprehensive effect size of science departments (e.g., mathematics, science, medical science) is larger than that of language arts and social sciences. Some recent international education reforms have noted that critical thinking is a basic part of scientific literacy. Students with scientific literacy can prove the rationality of their judgment according to accurate evidence and reasonable standards when they face challenges or poorly structured problems (Kyndt et al., 2013 ), which makes critical thinking crucial for developing scientific understanding and applying this understanding to practical problem solving for problems related to science, technology, and society (Yore et al., 2007 ).

Suggestions for critical thinking teaching

Other than those stated in the discussion above, the following suggestions are offered for critical thinking instruction utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

First, teachers should put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, to design real problems based on collaborative situations. This meta-analysis provides evidence to support the view that collaborative problem-solving has a strong synergistic effect on promoting students’ critical thinking. Asking questions about real situations and allowing learners to take part in critical discussions on real problems during class instruction are key ways to teach critical thinking rather than simply reading speculative articles without practice (Mulnix, 2012 ). Furthermore, the improvement of students’ critical thinking is realized through cognitive conflict with other learners in the problem situation (Yang et al., 2008 ). Consequently, it is essential for teachers to put a special emphasis on the two core elements, which are collaboration and problem-solving, and design real problems and encourage students to discuss, negotiate, and argue based on collaborative problem-solving situations.

Second, teachers should design and implement mixed courses to cultivate learners’ critical thinking, utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving. Critical thinking can be taught through curriculum instruction (Kuncel, 2011 ; Leng and Lu, 2020 ), with the goal of cultivating learners’ critical thinking for flexible transfer and application in real problem-solving situations. This meta-analysis shows that mixed course teaching has a highly substantial impact on the cultivation and promotion of learners’ critical thinking. Therefore, teachers should design and implement mixed course teaching with real collaborative problem-solving situations in combination with the knowledge content of specific disciplines in conventional teaching, teach methods and strategies of critical thinking based on poorly structured problems to help students master critical thinking, and provide practical activities in which students can interact with each other to develop knowledge construction and critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem-solving.

Third, teachers should be more trained in critical thinking, particularly preservice teachers, and they also should be conscious of the ways in which teachers’ support for learning scaffolds can promote critical thinking. The learning scaffold supported by teachers had the greatest impact on learners’ critical thinking, in addition to being more directive, targeted, and timely (Wood et al., 2006 ). Critical thinking can only be effectively taught when teachers recognize the significance of critical thinking for students’ growth and use the proper approaches while designing instructional activities (Forawi, 2016 ). Therefore, with the intention of enabling teachers to create learning scaffolds to cultivate learners’ critical thinking utilizing the approach of collaborative problem solving, it is essential to concentrate on the teacher-supported learning scaffolds and enhance the instruction for teaching critical thinking to teachers, especially preservice teachers.

Implications and limitations

There are certain limitations in this meta-analysis, but future research can correct them. First, the search languages were restricted to English and Chinese, so it is possible that pertinent studies that were written in other languages were overlooked, resulting in an inadequate number of articles for review. Second, these data provided by the included studies are partially missing, such as whether teachers were trained in the theory and practice of critical thinking, the average age and gender of learners, and the differences in critical thinking among learners of various ages and genders. Third, as is typical for review articles, more studies were released while this meta-analysis was being done; therefore, it had a time limit. With the development of relevant research, future studies focusing on these issues are highly relevant and needed.

Conclusions

The subject of the magnitude of collaborative problem-solving’s impact on fostering students’ critical thinking, which received scant attention from other studies, was successfully addressed by this study. The question of the effectiveness of collaborative problem-solving in promoting students’ critical thinking was addressed in this study, which addressed a topic that had gotten little attention in earlier research. The following conclusions can be made:

Regarding the results obtained, collaborative problem solving is an effective teaching approach to foster learners’ critical thinking, with a significant overall effect size (ES = 0.82, z  = 12.78, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.69, 0.95]). With respect to the dimensions of critical thinking, collaborative problem-solving can significantly and effectively improve students’ attitudinal tendency, and the comprehensive effect is significant (ES = 1.17, z  = 7.62, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.87, 1.47]); nevertheless, it falls short in terms of improving students’ cognitive skills, having only an upper-middle impact (ES = 0.70, z  = 11.55, P  < 0.01, 95% CI [0.58, 0.82]).

As demonstrated by both the results and the discussion, there are varying degrees of beneficial effects on students’ critical thinking from all seven moderating factors, which were found across 36 studies. In this context, the teaching type (chi 2  = 7.20, P  < 0.05), intervention duration (chi 2  = 12.18, P  < 0.01), subject area (chi 2  = 13.36, P  < 0.05), group size (chi 2  = 8.77, P  < 0.05), and learning scaffold (chi 2  = 9.03, P  < 0.01) all have a positive impact on critical thinking, and they can be viewed as important moderating factors that affect how critical thinking develops. Since the learning stage (chi 2  = 3.15, P  = 0.21 > 0.05) and measuring tools (chi 2  = 0.08, P  = 0.78 > 0.05) did not demonstrate any significant intergroup differences, we are unable to explain why these two factors are crucial in supporting the cultivation of critical thinking in the context of collaborative problem-solving.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included within the article and its supplementary information files, and the supplementary information files are available in the Dataverse repository: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/IPFJO6 .

Bensley DA, Spero RA (2014) Improving critical thinking skills and meta-cognitive monitoring through direct infusion. Think Skills Creat 12:55–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2014.02.001

Article   Google Scholar  

Castle A (2009) Defining and assessing critical thinking skills for student radiographers. Radiography 15(1):70–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radi.2007.10.007

Chen XD (2013) An empirical study on the influence of PBL teaching model on critical thinking ability of non-English majors. J PLA Foreign Lang College 36 (04):68–72

Google Scholar  

Cohen A (1992) Antecedents of organizational commitment across occupational groups: a meta-analysis. J Organ Behav. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030130602

Cooper H (2010) Research synthesis and meta-analysis: a step-by-step approach, 4th edn. Sage, London, England

Cindy HS (2004) Problem-based learning: what and how do students learn? Educ Psychol Rev 51(1):31–39

Duch BJ, Gron SD, Allen DE (2001) The power of problem-based learning: a practical “how to” for teaching undergraduate courses in any discipline. Stylus Educ Sci 2:190–198

Ennis RH (1989) Critical thinking and subject specificity: clarification and needed research. Educ Res 18(3):4–10. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x018003004

Facione PA (1990) Critical thinking: a statement of expert consensus for purposes of educational assessment and instruction. Research findings and recommendations. Eric document reproduction service. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ed315423

Facione PA, Facione NC (1992) The California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory (CCTDI) and the CCTDI test manual. California Academic Press, Millbrae, CA

Forawi SA (2016) Standard-based science education and critical thinking. Think Skills Creat 20:52–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2016.02.005

Halpern DF (2001) Assessing the effectiveness of critical thinking instruction. J Gen Educ 50(4):270–286. https://doi.org/10.2307/27797889

Hu WP, Liu J (2015) Cultivation of pupils’ thinking ability: a five-year follow-up study. Psychol Behav Res 13(05):648–654. https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1672-0628.2015.05.010

Huber K (2016) Does college teach critical thinking? A meta-analysis. Rev Educ Res 86(2):431–468. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315605917

Kek MYCA, Huijser H (2011) The power of problem-based learning in developing critical thinking skills: preparing students for tomorrow’s digital futures in today’s classrooms. High Educ Res Dev 30(3):329–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2010.501074

Kuncel NR (2011) Measurement and meaning of critical thinking (Research report for the NRC 21st Century Skills Workshop). National Research Council, Washington, DC

Kyndt E, Raes E, Lismont B, Timmers F, Cascallar E, Dochy F (2013) A meta-analysis of the effects of face-to-face cooperative learning. Do recent studies falsify or verify earlier findings? Educ Res Rev 10(2):133–149. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2013.02.002

Leng J, Lu XX (2020) Is critical thinking really teachable?—A meta-analysis based on 79 experimental or quasi experimental studies. Open Educ Res 26(06):110–118. https://doi.org/10.13966/j.cnki.kfjyyj.2020.06.011

Liang YZ, Zhu K, Zhao CL (2017) An empirical study on the depth of interaction promoted by collaborative problem solving learning activities. J E-educ Res 38(10):87–92. https://doi.org/10.13811/j.cnki.eer.2017.10.014

Lipsey M, Wilson D (2001) Practical meta-analysis. International Educational and Professional, London, pp. 92–160

Liu Z, Wu W, Jiang Q (2020) A study on the influence of problem based learning on college students’ critical thinking-based on a meta-analysis of 31 studies. Explor High Educ 03:43–49

Morris SB (2008) Estimating effect sizes from pretest-posttest-control group designs. Organ Res Methods 11(2):364–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428106291059

Article   ADS   Google Scholar  

Mulnix JW (2012) Thinking critically about critical thinking. Educ Philos Theory 44(5):464–479. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00673.x

Naber J, Wyatt TH (2014) The effect of reflective writing interventions on the critical thinking skills and dispositions of baccalaureate nursing students. Nurse Educ Today 34(1):67–72. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2013.04.002

National Research Council (2012) Education for life and work: developing transferable knowledge and skills in the 21st century. The National Academies Press, Washington, DC

Niu L, Behar HLS, Garvan CW (2013) Do instructional interventions influence college students’ critical thinking skills? A meta-analysis. Educ Res Rev 9(12):114–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2012.12.002

Peng ZM, Deng L (2017) Towards the core of education reform: cultivating critical thinking skills as the core of skills in the 21st century. Res Educ Dev 24:57–63. https://doi.org/10.14121/j.cnki.1008-3855.2017.24.011

Reiser BJ (2004) Scaffolding complex learning: the mechanisms of structuring and problematizing student work. J Learn Sci 13(3):273–304. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1303_2

Ruggiero VR (2012) The art of thinking: a guide to critical and creative thought, 4th edn. Harper Collins College Publishers, New York

Schellens T, Valcke M (2006) Fostering knowledge construction in university students through asynchronous discussion groups. Comput Educ 46(4):349–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2004.07.010

Sendag S, Odabasi HF (2009) Effects of an online problem based learning course on content knowledge acquisition and critical thinking skills. Comput Educ 53(1):132–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.01.008

Sison R (2008) Investigating Pair Programming in a Software Engineering Course in an Asian Setting. 2008 15th Asia-Pacific Software Engineering Conference, pp. 325–331. https://doi.org/10.1109/APSEC.2008.61

Simpson E, Courtney M (2002) Critical thinking in nursing education: literature review. Mary Courtney 8(2):89–98

Stewart L, Tierney J, Burdett S (2006) Do systematic reviews based on individual patient data offer a means of circumventing biases associated with trial publications? Publication bias in meta-analysis. John Wiley and Sons Inc, New York, pp. 261–286

Tiwari A, Lai P, So M, Yuen K (2010) A comparison of the effects of problem-based learning and lecturing on the development of students’ critical thinking. Med Educ 40(6):547–554. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02481.x

Wood D, Bruner JS, Ross G (2006) The role of tutoring in problem solving. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 17(2):89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.1976.tb00381.x

Wei T, Hong S (2022) The meaning and realization of teachable critical thinking. Educ Theory Practice 10:51–57

Xu EW, Wang W, Wang QX (2022) A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of programming teaching in promoting K-12 students’ computational thinking. Educ Inf Technol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11445-2

Yang YC, Newby T, Bill R (2008) Facilitating interactions through structured web-based bulletin boards: a quasi-experimental study on promoting learners’ critical thinking skills. Comput Educ 50(4):1572–1585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.04.006

Yore LD, Pimm D, Tuan HL (2007) The literacy component of mathematical and scientific literacy. Int J Sci Math Educ 5(4):559–589. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-007-9089-4

Zhang T, Zhang S, Gao QQ, Wang JH (2022) Research on the development of learners’ critical thinking in online peer review. Audio Visual Educ Res 6:53–60. https://doi.org/10.13811/j.cnki.eer.2022.06.08

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by the graduate scientific research and innovation project of Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region named “Research on in-depth learning of high school information technology courses for the cultivation of computing thinking” (No. XJ2022G190) and the independent innovation fund project for doctoral students of the College of Educational Science of Xinjiang Normal University named “Research on project-based teaching of high school information technology courses from the perspective of discipline core literacy” (No. XJNUJKYA2003).

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

College of Educational Science, Xinjiang Normal University, 830017, Urumqi, Xinjiang, China

Enwei Xu, Wei Wang & Qingxia Wang

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding authors

Correspondence to Enwei Xu or Wei Wang .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Ethical approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

Informed consent

Additional information.

Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

Supplementary tables, rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Xu, E., Wang, W. & Wang, Q. The effectiveness of collaborative problem solving in promoting students’ critical thinking: A meta-analysis based on empirical literature. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 10 , 16 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01508-1

Download citation

Received : 07 August 2022

Accepted : 04 January 2023

Published : 11 January 2023

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-023-01508-1

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

Impacts of online collaborative learning on students’ intercultural communication apprehension and intercultural communicative competence.

• Hoa Thi Hoang Chau
• Hung Phu Bui
• Quynh Thi Huong Dinh

Education and Information Technologies (2024)

Exploring the effects of digital technology on deep learning: a meta-analysis

The impacts of computer-supported collaborative learning on students’ critical thinking: a meta-analysis.

• Yoseph Gebrehiwot Tedla
• Hsiu-Ling Chen

Sustainable electricity generation and farm-grid utilization from photovoltaic aquaculture: a bibliometric analysis

• A. A. Amusa
• M. Alhassan

International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology (2024)

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

The Art of Effective Problem Solving: A Step-by-Step Guide

Author: Daniel Croft

Daniel Croft is an experienced continuous improvement manager with a Lean Six Sigma Black Belt and a Bachelor's degree in Business Management. With more than ten years of experience applying his skills across various industries, Daniel specializes in optimizing processes and improving efficiency. His approach combines practical experience with a deep understanding of business fundamentals to drive meaningful change.

Whether we realise it or not, problem solving skills are an important part of our daily lives. From resolving a minor annoyance at home to tackling complex business challenges at work, our ability to solve problems has a significant impact on our success and happiness. However, not everyone is naturally gifted at problem-solving, and even those who are can always improve their skills. In this blog post, we will go over the art of effective problem-solving step by step.

You will learn how to define a problem, gather information, assess alternatives, and implement a solution, all while honing your critical thinking and creative problem-solving skills. Whether you’re a seasoned problem solver or just getting started, this guide will arm you with the knowledge and tools you need to face any challenge with confidence. So let’s get started!

Problem Solving Methodologies

Individuals and organisations can use a variety of problem-solving methodologies to address complex challenges. 8D and A3 problem solving techniques are two popular methodologies in the Lean Six Sigma framework.

Methodology of 8D (Eight Discipline) Problem Solving:

The 8D problem solving methodology is a systematic, team-based approach to problem solving. It is a method that guides a team through eight distinct steps to solve a problem in a systematic and comprehensive manner.

The 8D process consists of the following steps:

• Form a team: Assemble a group of people who have the necessary expertise to work on the problem.
• Define the issue: Clearly identify and define the problem, including the root cause and the customer impact.
• Create a temporary containment plan: Put in place a plan to lessen the impact of the problem until a permanent solution can be found.
• Identify the root cause: To identify the underlying causes of the problem, use root cause analysis techniques such as Fishbone diagrams and Pareto charts.
• Create and test long-term corrective actions: Create and test a long-term solution to eliminate the root cause of the problem.
• Implement and validate the permanent solution: Implement and validate the permanent solution’s effectiveness.
• Prevent recurrence: Put in place measures to keep the problem from recurring.
• Recognize and reward the team: Recognize and reward the team for its efforts.

Download the 8D Problem Solving Template

A3 Problem Solving Method:

The A3 problem solving technique is a visual, team-based problem-solving approach that is frequently used in Lean Six Sigma projects. The A3 report is a one-page document that clearly and concisely outlines the problem, root cause analysis, and proposed solution.

The A3 problem-solving procedure consists of the following steps:

• Determine the issue: Define the issue clearly, including its impact on the customer.
• Perform root cause analysis: Identify the underlying causes of the problem using root cause analysis techniques.
• Create and implement a solution: Create and implement a solution that addresses the problem’s root cause.
• Monitor and improve the solution: Keep an eye on the solution’s effectiveness and make any necessary changes.

Subsequently, in the Lean Six Sigma framework, the 8D and A3 problem solving methodologies are two popular approaches to problem solving. Both methodologies provide a structured, team-based problem-solving approach that guides individuals through a comprehensive and systematic process of identifying, analysing, and resolving problems in an effective and efficient manner.

Step 1 – Define the Problem

The definition of the problem is the first step in effective problem solving. This may appear to be a simple task, but it is actually quite difficult. This is because problems are frequently complex and multi-layered, making it easy to confuse symptoms with the underlying cause. To avoid this pitfall, it is critical to thoroughly understand the problem.

To begin, ask yourself some clarifying questions:

• What exactly is the issue?
• What are the problem’s symptoms or consequences?
• Who or what is impacted by the issue?
• When and where does the issue arise?

Answering these questions will assist you in determining the scope of the problem. However, simply describing the problem is not always sufficient; you must also identify the root cause. The root cause is the underlying cause of the problem and is usually the key to resolving it permanently.

Try asking “why” questions to find the root cause:

• What causes the problem?
• Why does it continue?
• Why does it have the effects that it does?

By repeatedly asking “ why ,” you’ll eventually get to the bottom of the problem. This is an important step in the problem-solving process because it ensures that you’re dealing with the root cause rather than just the symptoms.

Once you have a firm grasp on the issue, it is time to divide it into smaller, more manageable chunks. This makes tackling the problem easier and reduces the risk of becoming overwhelmed. For example, if you’re attempting to solve a complex business problem, you might divide it into smaller components like market research, product development, and sales strategies.

To summarise step 1, defining the problem is an important first step in effective problem-solving. You will be able to identify the root cause and break it down into manageable parts if you take the time to thoroughly understand the problem. This will prepare you for the next step in the problem-solving process, which is gathering information and brainstorming ideas.

Step 2 – Gather Information and Brainstorm Ideas

Gathering information and brainstorming ideas is the next step in effective problem solving. This entails researching the problem and relevant information, collaborating with others, and coming up with a variety of potential solutions. This increases your chances of finding the best solution to the problem.

Begin by researching the problem and relevant information. This could include reading articles, conducting surveys, or consulting with experts. The goal is to collect as much information as possible in order to better understand the problem and possible solutions.

Next, work with others to gather a variety of perspectives. Brainstorming with others can be an excellent way to come up with new and creative ideas. Encourage everyone to share their thoughts and ideas when working in a group, and make an effort to actively listen to what others have to say. Be open to new and unconventional ideas and resist the urge to dismiss them too quickly.

Finally, use brainstorming to generate a wide range of potential solutions. This is the place where you can let your imagination run wild. At this stage, don’t worry about the feasibility or practicality of the solutions; instead, focus on generating as many ideas as possible. Write down everything that comes to mind, no matter how ridiculous or unusual it may appear. This can be done individually or in groups.

Once you’ve compiled a list of potential solutions, it’s time to assess them and select the best one. This is the next step in the problem-solving process, which we’ll go over in greater detail in the following section.

Step 3 – Evaluate Options and Choose the Best Solution

Once you’ve compiled a list of potential solutions, it’s time to assess them and select the best one. This is the third step in effective problem solving, and it entails weighing the advantages and disadvantages of each solution, considering their feasibility and practicability, and selecting the solution that is most likely to solve the problem effectively.

To begin, weigh the advantages and disadvantages of each solution. This will assist you in determining the potential outcomes of each solution and deciding which is the best option. For example, a quick and easy solution may not be the most effective in the long run, whereas a more complex and time-consuming solution may be more effective in solving the problem in the long run.

Consider each solution’s feasibility and practicability. Consider the following:

• Can the solution be implemented within the available resources, time, and budget?
• What are the possible barriers to implementing the solution?
• Is the solution feasible in today’s political, economic, and social environment?

You’ll be able to tell which solutions are likely to succeed and which aren’t by assessing their feasibility and practicability.

Finally, choose the solution that is most likely to effectively solve the problem. This solution should be based on the criteria you’ve established, such as the advantages and disadvantages of each solution, their feasibility and practicability, and your overall goals.

It is critical to remember that there is no one-size-fits-all solution to problems. What is effective for one person or situation may not be effective for another. This is why it is critical to consider a wide range of solutions and evaluate each one based on its ability to effectively solve the problem.

Step 4 – Implement and Monitor the Solution

When you’ve decided on the best solution, it’s time to put it into action. The fourth and final step in effective problem solving is to put the solution into action, monitor its progress, and make any necessary adjustments.

To begin, implement the solution. This may entail delegating tasks, developing a strategy, and allocating resources. Ascertain that everyone involved understands their role and responsibilities in the solution’s implementation.

Next, keep an eye on the solution’s progress. This may entail scheduling regular check-ins, tracking metrics, and soliciting feedback from others. You will be able to identify any potential roadblocks and make any necessary adjustments in a timely manner if you monitor the progress of the solution.

Finally, make any necessary modifications to the solution. This could entail changing the solution, altering the plan of action, or delegating different tasks. Be willing to make changes if they will improve the solution or help it solve the problem more effectively.

It’s important to remember that problem solving is an iterative process, and there may be times when you need to start from scratch. This is especially true if the initial solution does not effectively solve the problem. In these situations, it’s critical to be adaptable and flexible and to keep trying new solutions until you find the one that works best.

To summarise, effective problem solving is a critical skill that can assist individuals and organisations in overcoming challenges and achieving their objectives. Effective problem solving consists of four key steps: defining the problem, generating potential solutions, evaluating alternatives and selecting the best solution, and implementing the solution.

You can increase your chances of success in problem solving by following these steps and considering factors such as the pros and cons of each solution, their feasibility and practicability, and making any necessary adjustments. Furthermore, keep in mind that problem solving is an iterative process, and there may be times when you need to go back to the beginning and restart. Maintain your adaptability and try new solutions until you find the one that works best for you.

• Novick, L.R. and Bassok, M., 2005.  Problem Solving . Cambridge University Press.

Was this helpful?

Daniel Croft

Hi im Daniel continuous improvement manager with a Black Belt in Lean Six Sigma and over 10 years of real-world experience across a range sectors, I have a passion for optimizing processes and creating a culture of efficiency. I wanted to create Learn Lean Siigma to be a platform dedicated to Lean Six Sigma and process improvement insights and provide all the guides, tools, techniques and templates I looked for in one place as someone new to the world of Lean Six Sigma and Continuous improvement.

The Triple Threat to Productivity: Muda, Muri, and Mura Explained

Andon Systems: Tips for Successful Implementation and Maintenance

Free lean six sigma templates.

Improve your Lean Six Sigma projects with our free templates. They're designed to make implementation and management easier, helping you achieve better results.

Understanding Process Performance: Pp and Ppk

Understand Process Performance (Pp) and Process Performance Index (Ppk) to assess and improve manufacturing processes.…

LIFO or FIFO for Stock Management?

Choosing between LIFO and FIFO for stock management depends on factors like product nature, market…

Are There Any Official Standards for Six Sigma?

Are there any official standards for Six Sigma? While Six Sigma is a well-defined methodology…

5S Floor Marking Best Practices

In lean manufacturing, the 5S System is a foundational tool, involving the steps: Sort, Set…

How to Measure the ROI of Continuous Improvement Initiatives

When it comes to business, knowing the value you’re getting for your money is crucial,…

8D Problem-Solving: Common Mistakes to Avoid

In today’s competitive business landscape, effective problem-solving is the cornerstone of organizational success. The 8D…

• View programs
• Take our program quiz
• Online BBA Degree Program
• > Specialization in Artificial Intelligence
• > Specialization in Business Analytics
• > Specialization in Digital Marketing
• > Specialization in Entrepreneurship
• Online BBA Top-Up Program
• Associate of Applied Science in Business (AAS)
• Online MS Degree Programs
• > MS in Data Analytics
• > MS in Digital Transformation
• > MS in Entrepreneurship
• Online MBA Degree Program
• > Specialization in Cybersecurity
• > Specialization in E-Commerce
• > Specialization in Fintech & Blockchain
• > Specialization in International Business
• > Specialization in Sustainability
• Undergraduate certificates
• Graduate certificates
• Undergraduate courses
• Graduate courses
• Apply to Nexford
• Transfer to Nexford
• Explore Education Partners
• Scholarships
• For organizations
• Career Coalition
• Accreditation
• Our faculty
• Career services
• Academic model
• Learner stories
• Book consultation
• Careers - we're hiring!

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Course

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking considers how most successful professionals of the 21st century will be able to assess an environment, analyze a situation, design alternative solutions, and assist organizations in creatively overcoming challenges and reaching strategic goals.

This course focuses on the development of reasoning and problem solving skills by using the scientific method to analyze case studies and controversial topics. Learners consider cultural differences in reasoning, inductive and deductive logic, and how to use positive inquiry and synthesis to solve individual and organizational problems. Emphasis is placed on successful models and proven methods that are transferable within the work environment.

Course level

Undergraduate

Course duration

max. 8 weeks

Estimated time per week

10-15 hours

Course prerequisites

Course credits

Relevant jobs

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Course Overview

Explain the central elements of problem solving and decision making

Develop a strategic approach to individual growth and development and organizational performance

Identify the human factors that impact the results in problem solving and decision making processes

Apply problem solving and decision making processes and methods to real-world situations

Explain the essential components of problem solving and decision making and the obstacles associated with them

Analyze how cultural differences in beliefs can impact higher-order reasoning processes and social norms

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Course Skills

How will i learn, learning experience.

Your course starts on the first of the month. The course consists of 6 modules, and is designed to take you eight weeks to complete. Nexford’s learning design team has purposefully created courses to equip you with competencies mapped to the skills employers are looking for. Each course has 5-7 learning outcomes based on the skills employers need. Everything you learn gives you measurable skills you will use to succeed in today’s world of work.

Nexford courses are not live or recorded lectures. Instead, they’re reading, videos, interactive elements, quizzes and relevant case studies. Programs include assessments, peer-to-peer discussions, and a final project to practice what you’ve learned in a real-world context. Program content is available 24/7 during the course, and you have opportunities for collaboration and networking with learners during and after your program. Our global community of learners work at top companies such as Microsoft, Deloitte, and Google .

You'll have 24/7 access to success advisors to support you. Faculty also provide you world-class support. Book appointments with them, get individual feedback, and attend regular optional webinars.Nexford courses are rigorous and they encourage critical thinking - because we care about what you know how to do not what you know you have regular hands-on assessments reflecting the business world.

Course Outline

How will I be graded?

View the catalog to learn about how this course is graded.

What will I get after completing the course?

You'll get real skills you can use at work, straight away. At the end of this course, you'll also get a digital badge that you can put on your LinkedIn profile to showcase your skills.

Once you've taken one course, you can take more. Using stacked credentials, you’re able to take enough courses to make a certificate, and take enough certificates to build a degree.

If you apply for a Nexford certificate or degree, you'll get credit for each course you take.

What support will I receive?

When you have a dedicated team on your side, you'll never be alone studying at Nexford. Hailing from many different countries and with online education expertise, our faculty provides you world-class support. Ask them questions during one-to-one office hours or live chat , email them any time, and get individual feedback on your assessments.

While you’re learning, you’ll also have full access to the Nexford online library, which includes access to millions of full-text articles, industry reports and key sources such as the Wall Street Journal, the Financial Times and The Economist.

LinkedIn Learning: unlimited access with Nexford

Support your Nexford goals with access to LinkedIn Learning during your program, at no additional cost. Explore the learning hub of the globe’s biggest professional networking platform to:

• Power your career: choose from over 16,000 expert-led courses, from remote working to data science
• Show off your skills: earn a certificate when you complete a course
• See what’s trending: LinkedIn Learning adds 25 new courses each week
• Tailor your learning: choose relevant courses based on your experience, LinkedIn profile and goals
• Test what you’ve learned: use LinkedIn Learning assessments

Questions? We’re here to help

Frequently asked questions

Problem Solving and Critical Thinking Course Testimonials

When I started at Nexford I found a direction.

Each course is like a door opening.

My weekly reflective journal is my Nexford highlight. Thanks to faculty support, I continually apply principles to my enterprise – and I've been able to scale beyond considerable measure.

I don't have to spend a fortune to earn a high-quality MBA.

• Bipolar Disorder
• Therapy Center
• When To See a Therapist
• Types of Therapy
• Best Online Therapy
• Best Couples Therapy
• Managing Stress
• Sleep and Dreaming
• Understanding Emotions
• Self-Improvement
• Healthy Relationships
• Student Resources
• Personality Types
• Sweepstakes
• Guided Meditations
• Verywell Mind Insights
• 2024 Verywell Mind 25
• Mental Health in the Classroom
• Editorial Process
• Meet Our Review Board
• Crisis Support

Overview of the Problem-Solving Mental Process

• Identify the Problem
• Define the Problem
• Form a Strategy
• Organize Information
• Allocate Resources
• Monitor Progress
• Evaluate the Results

Frequently Asked Questions

Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing, and solving problems. The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue.

The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off learning everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution. In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.

It is not necessary to follow problem-solving steps sequentially, It is common to skip steps or even go back through steps multiple times until the desired solution is reached.

In order to correctly solve a problem, it is often important to follow a series of steps. Researchers sometimes refer to this as the problem-solving cycle. While this cycle is portrayed sequentially, people rarely follow a rigid series of steps to find a solution.

The following steps include developing strategies and organizing knowledge.

1. Identifying the Problem

While it may seem like an obvious step, identifying the problem is not always as simple as it sounds. In some cases, people might mistakenly identify the wrong source of a problem, which will make attempts to solve it inefficient or even useless.

Some strategies that you might use to figure out the source of a problem include :

• Asking questions about the problem
• Breaking the problem down into smaller pieces
• Looking at the problem from different perspectives
• Conducting research to figure out what relationships exist between different variables

2. Defining the Problem

After the problem has been identified, it is important to fully define the problem so that it can be solved. You can define a problem by operationally defining each aspect of the problem and setting goals for what aspects of the problem you will address

At this point, you should focus on figuring out which aspects of the problems are facts and which are opinions. State the problem clearly and identify the scope of the solution.

3. Forming a Strategy

After the problem has been identified, it is time to start brainstorming potential solutions. This step usually involves generating as many ideas as possible without judging their quality. Once several possibilities have been generated, they can be evaluated and narrowed down.

The next step is to develop a strategy to solve the problem. The approach used will vary depending upon the situation and the individual's unique preferences. Common problem-solving strategies include heuristics and algorithms.

• Heuristics are mental shortcuts that are often based on solutions that have worked in the past. They can work well if the problem is similar to something you have encountered before and are often the best choice if you need a fast solution.
• Algorithms are step-by-step strategies that are guaranteed to produce a correct result. While this approach is great for accuracy, it can also consume time and resources.

Heuristics are often best used when time is of the essence, while algorithms are a better choice when a decision needs to be as accurate as possible.

4. Organizing Information

Before coming up with a solution, you need to first organize the available information. What do you know about the problem? What do you not know? The more information that is available the better prepared you will be to come up with an accurate solution.

When approaching a problem, it is important to make sure that you have all the data you need. Making a decision without adequate information can lead to biased or inaccurate results.

5. Allocating Resources

Of course, we don't always have unlimited money, time, and other resources to solve a problem. Before you begin to solve a problem, you need to determine how high priority it is.

If it is an important problem, it is probably worth allocating more resources to solving it. If, however, it is a fairly unimportant problem, then you do not want to spend too much of your available resources on coming up with a solution.

At this stage, it is important to consider all of the factors that might affect the problem at hand. This includes looking at the available resources, deadlines that need to be met, and any possible risks involved in each solution. After careful evaluation, a decision can be made about which solution to pursue.

6. Monitoring Progress

After selecting a problem-solving strategy, it is time to put the plan into action and see if it works. This step might involve trying out different solutions to see which one is the most effective.

It is also important to monitor the situation after implementing a solution to ensure that the problem has been solved and that no new problems have arisen as a result of the proposed solution.

Effective problem-solvers tend to monitor their progress as they work towards a solution. If they are not making good progress toward reaching their goal, they will reevaluate their approach or look for new strategies .

7. Evaluating the Results

After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the best possible solution to the problem. This evaluation might be immediate, such as checking the results of a math problem to ensure the answer is correct, or it can be delayed, such as evaluating the success of a therapy program after several months of treatment.

Once a problem has been solved, it is important to take some time to reflect on the process that was used and evaluate the results. This will help you to improve your problem-solving skills and become more efficient at solving future problems.

A Word From Verywell​

It is important to remember that there are many different problem-solving processes with different steps, and this is just one example. Problem-solving in real-world situations requires a great deal of resourcefulness, flexibility, resilience, and continuous interaction with the environment.

Get Advice From The Verywell Mind Podcast

Hosted by therapist Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares how you can stop dwelling in a negative mindset.

Follow Now : Apple Podcasts / Spotify / Google Podcasts

You can become a better problem solving by:

• Practicing brainstorming and coming up with multiple potential solutions to problems
• Being open-minded and considering all possible options before making a decision
• Breaking down problems into smaller, more manageable pieces
• Asking for help when needed
• Researching different problem-solving techniques and trying out new ones
• Learning from mistakes and using them as opportunities to grow

It's important to communicate openly and honestly with your partner about what's going on. Try to see things from their perspective as well as your own. Work together to find a resolution that works for both of you. Be willing to compromise and accept that there may not be a perfect solution.

Take breaks if things are getting too heated, and come back to the problem when you feel calm and collected. Don't try to fix every problem on your own—consider asking a therapist or counselor for help and insight.

If you've tried everything and there doesn't seem to be a way to fix the problem, you may have to learn to accept it. This can be difficult, but try to focus on the positive aspects of your life and remember that every situation is temporary. Don't dwell on what's going wrong—instead, think about what's going right. Find support by talking to friends or family. Seek professional help if you're having trouble coping.

Davidson JE, Sternberg RJ, editors.  The Psychology of Problem Solving .  Cambridge University Press; 2003. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511615771

Sarathy V. Real world problem-solving .  Front Hum Neurosci . 2018;12:261. Published 2018 Jun 26. doi:10.3389/fnhum.2018.00261

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

• Onsite training

3,000,000+ delegates

15,000+ clients

1,000+ locations

• KnowledgePass
• Log a ticket

01344203999 Available 24/7

What is Problem Solving? A Comprehensive Guide

In this blog, we will explore "What is Problem Solving?" In detail. From defining the nature of Problem Solving to understanding the key process in resolving issues, this blog covers it all. So, wait no more; let’s go deeper into this fundamental concept.

Exclusive 40% OFF

Training Outcomes Within Your Budget!

We ensure quality, budget-alignment, and timely delivery by our expert instructors.

Share this Resource

• Introduction to Management
• Personal & Organisational Development
• Workforce Resource Planning Training
• Supervisor Training
• Introduction to Managing Budgets

Table of contents  

1) What is Problem Solving definition?  

2) The process of Problem Solving  

3) Key skills for effective Problem Solving  

4) Strategies for enhancing Problem Solving abilities  

5) Problem Solving tools and techniques  

6) Conclusion       

What is Problem Solving definition?  

The process of Problem Solving  

Understanding the problem   

The first step in Problem Solving is gaining a clear understanding of the issue at hand. Take the time to thoroughly analyse the problem and gather relevant information. Ask yourself questions like:  

1) What is the nature of the problem?  

2) What are the factors contributing to the problem?  

3) What are the desired outcomes?  

4) Are there any constraints or limitations to consider?  

By gaining a comprehensive understanding of the problem, you lay a solid foundation for finding an effective solution.  

Generating possible solutions   

Once you have a clear grasp of the problem, it's time to brainstorm potential solutions. Encourage creativity and think outside the box. Consider all possible options without judgment or criticism. The goal at this stage is to generate a variety of ideas and alternatives.  

Evaluating and selecting the best solution   

After generating a list of possible solutions, it's important to evaluate each option based on its feasibility, effectiveness, and alignment with the desired outcome. Consider the advantages and disadvantages of each and every solution. Assess its practicality and the resources required for implementation.  

Additionally, take into account the potential risks and benefits associated with each solution. Consider any potential consequences or impacts on other aspects. Based on this evaluation, select the solution that appears most viable and promising.  

Implementing the solution   

Once you have chosen the best solution, it's time to put it into action. Develop a detailed plan outlining the necessary steps and allocate the required resources. Determine responsibilities and deadlines to ensure a smooth implementation process.  

During implementation, monitor progress and make any necessary adjustments or adaptations. Stay proactive and address any challenges or obstacles that may arise along the way. Effective communication and collaboration with others involved in the process can greatly contribute to successful implementation.  

Assessing the results   

After implementing the solution, it's essential to assess the results. Evaluate whether the problem has been properly resolved or if further adjustments are required. Analyse the outcomes and compare them against the desired goals and expectations.  

Consider whether the chosen solution has brought about the intended benefits and if any unexpected consequences have emerged. Reflect on the overall effectiveness of the Problem Solving process and identify any lessons learned for future reference.  

Remember, Problem Solving is an iterative process, and it's not uncommon to revisit and refine solutions based on ongoing evaluation and feedback. Embrace a continuous improvement mindset and be open to seeking alternative approaches if necessary.  

By following this Problem Solving process, you can approach challenges systematically and increase your chances of finding effective solutions. Remember that practice and experience play a vital role in honing your skills. 

Master the art of solving problems and become a catalyst for innovation and success with our Problem Solving Training – sign up now!  

Key skills for effective Problem Solving   

What one must do to become an effective problem solver is to develop key skills that enhance your Problem Solving abilities. The skills give you the ability to tackle challenges with a strategic mind and find the needed solutions. Below is a dive into the most important of them:

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is a skill that includes the objective analysis of information, considering different viewpoints, and being able to arrive at a sensible judgment. This helps you to assess problems with the right accuracy in judgment and also find suitable solutions. 

It means that creativity is the ability of a person to think outside the box and come up with innovative solutions. It includes pressing the mind toward new possibilities and viewing the problem in different ways.

Analytical skills

In this ability, there is the aspect of breaking down a problem into subunits that helps in identifying the patterns, relationships, and causes within the problem. 

Decision-making

Sound skills in decision making call for the assessment of the pros and cons of all solutions provided and thus choosing the best alternative. Risks must always be considered with the benefits any alternative might bring.

Strategies for enhancing Problem Solving abilities  

Practice critical thinking

Engage yourself in activities which require critical thinking, including solving puzzles, complex discussion, challenging all assumptions. This will increase your ability to enhance sharpening of your analytical skills and let you think critically at a time when problems are in your way. 

Seek feedback and learn from experience

Seek responses from your mentors, course peers, and Problem Solving experts. From the successes and failures, reflect on the reasons for the occurrences over previous experiences and point out what could be improved. Treat the opportunity of Problem Solving as one of the chances that shall be given to you to grow and develop each time you make it through a problem. 

Embrace challenges

You can redesign your problematic issues and take every challenge coming across as an opportunity for growth. Hence, it paves the way for the ability of resilience and strengthens your Problem Solving abilities. 

Collaborate with others 

In Problem Solving, collaboration is embraced by pooling different perspectives and ideas. Work with others in activities that involve groups to discuss issues and seek input from others, listening actively to various viewpoints. Working collaboratively with others helps expand your knowledge of various ways of Problem Solving and encourages innovation.

Think outside the box 

Encourage creative thinking by exploring unconventional ideas and solutions. Challenge every assumption and all its related alternatives. Shift to this kind of mindset, and it can drive innovative Problem Solving strategies, letting you uncover newer ways to solve age-old complex problems.

Problem Solving tools and techniques  

When faced with complex problems, utilising specific tools and techniques can help facilitate the solving process and lead to more effective solutions. Here are some commonly used Problem Solving tools and techniques:  

Root cause analysis   

Root cause analysis is a methodology used to detect the underlying causes of a problem. It involves investigating the problem's symptoms and tracing them back to their fundamental causes. By addressing the root causes, Problem Solvers can prevent the issue from recurring.  

Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats (SWOT) analysis   

SWOT analysis is a planning tool that strategically helps measure the weaknesses and internal strengths of a situation. Moreover, it can find external opportunities and threats. By assessing these factors, Problem Solvers can gain insights into the current state and make informed decisions about potential solutions.  

Fishbone diagrams   

Fishbone diagrams, also known as cause-and-effect diagrams or Ishikawa Diagrams, visually represent the possible causes contributing to a problem. By organising causes into categories (such as people, process, equipment, and environment), Problem Solvers can systematically analyse the problem's potential sources.  

Decision matrices   

Decision matrices are used to evaluate and compare different options based on multiple criteria. This tool helps Problem Solvers weigh the importance of various factors and objectively assess each alternative, leading to an informed decision.  

Six Thinking Hats   

Six Thinking Hats is a technique initially developed by Edward de Bono that encourages parallel thinking by exploring different perspectives. Each "hat" represents a different thinking approach (e.g., logical, creative, emotional), allowing Problem Solvers to consider diverse viewpoints and generate innovative solutions.  

These are just a few examples of Problem Solving tools and techniques. Depending on the nature of the problem, other methods, such as brainstorming, mind mapping, flowcharts, or Pareto analysis, can also be applied. Choosing the appropriate tool or technique depends on the specific problem and the desired outcome. 

Navigate conflicts with finesse and foster collaboration with our transformative Conflict Management Training – sign up today!  

Conclusion  

We hope you read and understand everything about What is Problem Solving? Developing effective skills is crucial for overcoming challenges, making informed decisions, and achieving success. By embracing problems as opportunities and applying strategic approaches, individuals can become proficient Problem Solvers in various domains of life. 

Unlock your management potential and elevate your skills to new heights with our cutting-edge Management Courses – sign up now!  

Frequently Asked Questions

There are two major types of Problem Solving: Reflective and Creative. Regardless of the type, it focuses on understanding the issues, considering all factors and finding a solution.

Problem Solving in the workplace refers to an individual’s ability to manage difficult situations and find solutions to complex business issues.

The Knowledge Academy takes global learning to new heights, offering over 30,000 online courses across 490+ locations in 220 countries. This expansive reach ensures accessibility and convenience for learners worldwide.

Alongside our diverse Online Course Catalogue, encompassing 17 major categories, we go the extra mile by providing a plethora of free educational Online Resources like News updates, Blogs , videos, webinars, and interview questions. Tailoring learning experiences further, professionals can maximise value with customisable Course Bundles of TKA .  

The Knowledge Academy’s Knowledge Pass , a prepaid voucher, adds another layer of flexibility, allowing course bookings over a 12-month period. Join us on a journey where education knows no bounds.

The Knowledge Academy offers various Management Courses including Business Process Improvement Training, Performance Management Training and Introduction to Managing People. These courses cater to different skill levels, providing comprehensive insights into Resource Planning Template .

Our Business Skills Blogs cover a range of topics related to musical instruments, offering valuable resources, best practices, and industry insights. Whether you are a beginner or looking to advance your skills as a Music Producer, The Knowledge Academy's diverse courses and informative blogs have you covered.  

Upcoming Business Skills Resources Batches & Dates

Fri 11th Oct 2024

Fri 13th Dec 2024

Get A Quote

WHO WILL BE FUNDING THE COURSE?

My employer

By submitting your details you agree to be contacted in order to respond to your enquiry

• Business Analysis
• Lean Six Sigma Certification

Share this course

Our biggest summer sale.

We cannot process your enquiry without contacting you, please tick to confirm your consent to us for contacting you about your enquiry.

By submitting your details you agree to be contacted in order to respond to your enquiry.

We may not have the course you’re looking for. If you enquire or give us a call on 01344203999 and speak to our training experts, we may still be able to help with your training requirements.

Or select from our popular topics

• ITIL® Certification
• Scrum Certification
• ISO 9001 Certification
• Change Management Certification
• Microsoft Azure Certification
• Microsoft Excel Courses
• Explore more courses

Press esc to close

Fill out your  contact details  below and our training experts will be in touch.

Fill out your   contact details   below

Thank you for your enquiry!

One of our training experts will be in touch shortly to go over your training requirements.

Back to Course Information

Fill out your contact details below so we can get in touch with you regarding your training requirements.

* WHO WILL BE FUNDING THE COURSE?

Preferred Contact Method

No preference

Back to course information

Fill out your  training details  below

Fill out your training details below so we have a better idea of what your training requirements are.

HOW MANY DELEGATES NEED TRAINING?

HOW DO YOU WANT THE COURSE DELIVERED?

Online Instructor-led

Online Self-paced

WHEN WOULD YOU LIKE TO TAKE THIS COURSE?

Next 2 - 4 months

WHAT IS YOUR REASON FOR ENQUIRING?

Looking for some information

Looking for a discount

I want to book but have questions

One of our training experts will be in touch shortly to go overy your training requirements.

Your privacy & cookies!

Like many websites we use cookies. We care about your data and experience, so to give you the best possible experience using our site, we store a very limited amount of your data. Continuing to use this site or clicking “Accept & close” means that you agree to our use of cookies. Learn more about our privacy policy and cookie policy cookie policy .

We use cookies that are essential for our site to work. Please visit our cookie policy for more information. To accept all cookies click 'Accept & close'.

What is Problem Solving? (Steps, Techniques, Examples)

By Status.net Editorial Team on May 7, 2023 — 5 minutes to read

What Is Problem Solving?

Definition and importance.

Problem solving is the process of finding solutions to obstacles or challenges you encounter in your life or work. It is a crucial skill that allows you to tackle complex situations, adapt to changes, and overcome difficulties with ease. Mastering this ability will contribute to both your personal and professional growth, leading to more successful outcomes and better decision-making.

Problem-Solving Steps

The problem-solving process typically includes the following steps:

• Identify the issue : Recognize the problem that needs to be solved.
• Analyze the situation : Examine the issue in depth, gather all relevant information, and consider any limitations or constraints that may be present.
• Generate potential solutions : Brainstorm a list of possible solutions to the issue, without immediately judging or evaluating them.
• Evaluate options : Weigh the pros and cons of each potential solution, considering factors such as feasibility, effectiveness, and potential risks.
• Select the best solution : Choose the option that best addresses the problem and aligns with your objectives.
• Implement the solution : Put the selected solution into action and monitor the results to ensure it resolves the issue.
• Review and learn : Reflect on the problem-solving process, identify any improvements or adjustments that can be made, and apply these learnings to future situations.

Defining the Problem

To start tackling a problem, first, identify and understand it. Analyzing the issue thoroughly helps to clarify its scope and nature. Ask questions to gather information and consider the problem from various angles. Some strategies to define the problem include:

• Brainstorming with others
• Asking the 5 Ws and 1 H (Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How)
• Analyzing cause and effect
• Creating a problem statement

Generating Solutions

Once the problem is clearly understood, brainstorm possible solutions. Think creatively and keep an open mind, as well as considering lessons from past experiences. Consider:

• Creating a list of potential ideas to solve the problem
• Grouping and categorizing similar solutions
• Prioritizing potential solutions based on feasibility, cost, and resources required
• Involving others to share diverse opinions and inputs

Evaluating and Selecting Solutions

Evaluate each potential solution, weighing its pros and cons. To facilitate decision-making, use techniques such as:

• SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats)
• Decision-making matrices
• Pros and cons lists
• Risk assessments

After evaluating, choose the most suitable solution based on effectiveness, cost, and time constraints.

Implementing and Monitoring the Solution

Implement the chosen solution and monitor its progress. Key actions include:

• Communicating the solution to relevant parties
• Setting timelines and milestones
• Assigning tasks and responsibilities
• Monitoring the solution and making adjustments as necessary
• Evaluating the effectiveness of the solution after implementation

Utilize feedback from stakeholders and consider potential improvements. Remember that problem-solving is an ongoing process that can always be refined and enhanced.

Problem-Solving Techniques

During each step, you may find it helpful to utilize various problem-solving techniques, such as:

• Brainstorming : A free-flowing, open-minded session where ideas are generated and listed without judgment, to encourage creativity and innovative thinking.
• Root cause analysis : A method that explores the underlying causes of a problem to find the most effective solution rather than addressing superficial symptoms.
• SWOT analysis : A tool used to evaluate the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats related to a problem or decision, providing a comprehensive view of the situation.
• Mind mapping : A visual technique that uses diagrams to organize and connect ideas, helping to identify patterns, relationships, and possible solutions.

Brainstorming

When facing a problem, start by conducting a brainstorming session. Gather your team and encourage an open discussion where everyone contributes ideas, no matter how outlandish they may seem. This helps you:

• Generate a diverse range of solutions
• Encourage all team members to participate
• Foster creative thinking

When brainstorming, remember to:

• Reserve judgment until the session is over
• Encourage wild ideas
• Combine and improve upon ideas

Root Cause Analysis

For effective problem-solving, identifying the root cause of the issue at hand is crucial. Try these methods:

• 5 Whys : Ask “why” five times to get to the underlying cause.
• Fishbone Diagram : Create a diagram representing the problem and break it down into categories of potential causes.
• Pareto Analysis : Determine the few most significant causes underlying the majority of problems.

SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis helps you examine the Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats related to your problem. To perform a SWOT analysis:

• List your problem’s strengths, such as relevant resources or strong partnerships.
• Identify its weaknesses, such as knowledge gaps or limited resources.
• Explore opportunities, like trends or new technologies, that could help solve the problem.
• Recognize potential threats, like competition or regulatory barriers.

SWOT analysis aids in understanding the internal and external factors affecting the problem, which can help guide your solution.

Mind Mapping

A mind map is a visual representation of your problem and potential solutions. It enables you to organize information in a structured and intuitive manner. To create a mind map:

• Write the problem in the center of a blank page.
• Draw branches from the central problem to related sub-problems or contributing factors.
• Add more branches to represent potential solutions or further ideas.

Mind mapping allows you to visually see connections between ideas and promotes creativity in problem-solving.

Examples of Problem Solving in Various Contexts

In the business world, you might encounter problems related to finances, operations, or communication. Applying problem-solving skills in these situations could look like:

• Identifying areas of improvement in your company’s financial performance and implementing cost-saving measures
• Resolving internal conflicts among team members by listening and understanding different perspectives, then proposing and negotiating solutions
• Streamlining a process for better productivity by removing redundancies, automating tasks, or re-allocating resources

In educational contexts, problem-solving can be seen in various aspects, such as:

• Addressing a gap in students’ understanding by employing diverse teaching methods to cater to different learning styles
• Developing a strategy for successful time management to balance academic responsibilities and extracurricular activities
• Seeking resources and support to provide equal opportunities for learners with special needs or disabilities

Everyday life is full of challenges that require problem-solving skills. Some examples include:

• Overcoming a personal obstacle, such as improving your fitness level, by establishing achievable goals, measuring progress, and adjusting your approach accordingly
• Navigating a new environment or city by researching your surroundings, asking for directions, or using technology like GPS to guide you
• Dealing with a sudden change, like a change in your work schedule, by assessing the situation, identifying potential impacts, and adapting your plans to accommodate the change.
• How to Resolve Employee Conflict at Work [Steps, Tips, Examples]
• How to Write Inspiring Core Values? 5 Steps with Examples
• 30 Employee Feedback Examples (Positive & Negative)

How to improve your problem solving skills and build effective problem solving strategies

Design your next session with SessionLab

Join the 150,000+ facilitators 
using SessionLab.

Recommended Articles

A step-by-step guide to planning a workshop, 54 great online tools for workshops and meetings, how to create an unforgettable training session in 8 simple steps.

• 18 Free Facilitation Resources We Think You’ll Love

Effective problem solving is all about using the right process and following a plan tailored to the issue at hand. Recognizing your team or organization has an issue isn’t enough to come up with effective problem solving strategies. 

To truly understand a problem and develop appropriate solutions, you will want to follow a solid process, follow the necessary problem solving steps, and bring all of your problem solving skills to the table.   We’ll forst look at what problem solving strategies you can employ with your team when looking for a way to approach the process. We’ll then discuss the problem solving skills you need to be more effective at solving problems, complete with an activity from the SessionLab library you can use to develop that skill in your team.

Let’s get to it! 

Problem solving strategies

What skills do i need to be an effective problem solver, how can i improve my problem solving skills.

Problem solving strategies are methods of approaching and facilitating the process of problem-solving with a set of techniques , actions, and processes. Different strategies are more effective if you are trying to solve broad problems such as achieving higher growth versus more focused problems like, how do we improve our customer onboarding process?

Broadly, the problem solving steps outlined above should be included in any problem solving strategy though choosing where to focus your time and what approaches should be taken is where they begin to differ. You might find that some strategies ask for the problem identification to be done prior to the session or that everything happens in the course of a one day workshop.

The key similarity is that all good problem solving strategies are structured and designed. Four hours of open discussion is never going to be as productive as a four-hour workshop designed to lead a group through a problem solving process.

Good problem solving strategies are tailored to the team, organization and problem you will be attempting to solve. Here are some example problem solving strategies you can learn from or use to get started.

Use a workshop to lead a team through a group process

Often, the first step to solving problems or organizational challenges is bringing a group together effectively. Most teams have the tools, knowledge, and expertise necessary to solve their challenges – they just need some guidance in how to use leverage those skills and a structure and format that allows people to focus their energies.

Facilitated workshops are one of the most effective ways of solving problems of any scale. By designing and planning your workshop carefully, you can tailor the approach and scope to best fit the needs of your team and organization. 

Problem solving workshop

• Creating a bespoke, tailored process
• Tackling problems of any size
• Building in-house workshop ability and encouraging their use

Workshops are an effective strategy for solving problems. By using tried and test facilitation techniques and methods, you can design and deliver a workshop that is perfectly suited to the unique variables of your organization. You may only have the capacity for a half-day workshop and so need a problem solving process to match. 

By using our session planner tool and importing methods from our library of 700+ facilitation techniques, you can create the right problem solving workshop for your team. It might be that you want to encourage creative thinking or look at things from a new angle to unblock your groups approach to problem solving. By tailoring your workshop design to the purpose, you can help ensure great results.

One of the main benefits of a workshop is the structured approach to problem solving. Not only does this mean that the workshop itself will be successful, but many of the methods and techniques will help your team improve their working processes outside of the workshop. 

We believe that workshops are one of the best tools you can use to improve the way your team works together. Start with a problem solving workshop and then see what team building, culture or design workshops can do for your organization!

Run a design sprint

Great for: 

• aligning large, multi-discipline teams
• quickly designing and testing solutions
• tackling large, complex organizational challenges and breaking them down into smaller tasks

By using design thinking principles and methods, a design sprint is a great way of identifying, prioritizing and prototyping solutions to long term challenges that can help solve major organizational problems with quick action and measurable results.

Some familiarity with design thinking is useful, though not integral, and this strategy can really help a team align if there is some discussion around which problems should be approached first. 

The stage-based structure of the design sprint is also very useful for teams new to design thinking.  The inspiration phase, where you look to competitors that have solved your problem, and the rapid prototyping and testing phases are great for introducing new concepts that will benefit a team in all their future work. 

It can be common for teams to look inward for solutions and so looking to the market for solutions you can iterate on can be very productive. Instilling an agile prototyping and testing mindset can also be great when helping teams move forwards – generating and testing solutions quickly can help save time in the long run and is also pretty exciting!

Break problems down into smaller issues

Organizational challenges and problems are often complicated and large scale in nature. Sometimes, trying to resolve such an issue in one swoop is simply unachievable or overwhelming. Try breaking down such problems into smaller issues that you can work on step by step. You may not be able to solve the problem of churning customers off the bat, but you can work with your team to identify smaller effort but high impact elements and work on those first.

This problem solving strategy can help a team generate momentum, prioritize and get some easy wins. It’s also a great strategy to employ with teams who are just beginning to learn how to approach the problem solving process. If you want some insight into a way to employ this strategy, we recommend looking at our design sprint template below!

Use guiding frameworks or try new methodologies

Some problems are best solved by introducing a major shift in perspective or by using new methodologies that encourage your team to think differently.

Props and tools such as Methodkit , which uses a card-based toolkit for facilitation, or Lego Serious Play can be great ways to engage your team and find an inclusive, democratic problem solving strategy. Remember that play and creativity are great tools for achieving change and whatever the challenge, engaging your participants can be very effective where other strategies may have failed.

LEGO Serious Play

• Improving core problem solving skills
• Thinking outside of the box
• Encouraging creative solutions

LEGO Serious Play is a problem solving methodology designed to get participants thinking differently by using 3D models and kinesthetic learning styles. By physically building LEGO models based on questions and exercises, participants are encouraged to think outside of the box and create their own responses. 

Collaborate LEGO Serious Play exercises are also used to encourage communication and build problem solving skills in a group. By using this problem solving process, you can often help different kinds of learners and personality types contribute and unblock organizational problems with creative thinking. 

Problem solving strategies like LEGO Serious Play are super effective at helping a team solve more skills-based problems such as communication between teams or a lack of creative thinking. Some problems are not suited to LEGO Serious Play and require a different problem solving strategy.

Card Decks and Method Kits

• New facilitators or non-facilitators 
• Approaching difficult subjects with a simple, creative framework
• Engaging those with varied learning styles

Card decks and method kids are great tools for those new to facilitation or for whom facilitation is not the primary role. Card decks such as the emotional culture deck can be used for complete workshops and in many cases, can be used right out of the box. Methodkit has a variety of kits designed for scenarios ranging from personal development through to personas and global challenges so you can find the right deck for your particular needs.

Having an easy to use framework that encourages creativity or a new approach can take some of the friction or planning difficulties out of the workshop process and energize a team in any setting. Simplicity is the key with these methods. By ensuring everyone on your team can get involved and engage with the process as quickly as possible can really contribute to the success of your problem solving strategy.

Source external advice

Looking to peers, experts and external facilitators can be a great way of approaching the problem solving process. Your team may not have the necessary expertise, insights of experience to tackle some issues, or you might simply benefit from a fresh perspective. Some problems may require bringing together an entire team, and coaching managers or team members individually might be the right approach. Remember that not all problems are best resolved in the same manner.

If you’re a solo entrepreneur, peer groups, coaches and mentors can also be invaluable at not only solving specific business problems, but in providing a support network for resolving future challenges. One great approach is to join a Mastermind Group and link up with like-minded individuals and all grow together. Remember that however you approach the sourcing of external advice, do so thoughtfully, respectfully and honestly. Reciprocate where you can and prepare to be surprised by just how kind and helpful your peers can be!

Mastermind Group

• Solo entrepreneurs or small teams with low capacity
• Peer learning and gaining outside expertise
• Getting multiple external points of view quickly

Problem solving in large organizations with lots of skilled team members is one thing, but how about if you work for yourself or in a very small team without the capacity to get the most from a design sprint or LEGO Serious Play session? 

A mastermind group – sometimes known as a peer advisory board – is where a group of people come together to support one another in their own goals, challenges, and businesses. Each participant comes to the group with their own purpose and the other members of the group will help them create solutions, brainstorm ideas, and support one another. 

Mastermind groups are very effective in creating an energized, supportive atmosphere that can deliver meaningful results. Learning from peers from outside of your organization or industry can really help unlock new ways of thinking and drive growth. Access to the experience and skills of your peers can be invaluable in helping fill the gaps in your own ability, particularly in young companies.

A mastermind group is a great solution for solo entrepreneurs, small teams, or for organizations that feel that external expertise or fresh perspectives will be beneficial for them. It is worth noting that Mastermind groups are often only as good as the participants and what they can bring to the group. Participants need to be committed, engaged and understand how to work in this context. 

Coaching and mentoring

• Focused learning and development
• Filling skills gaps
• Working on a range of challenges over time

Receiving advice from a business coach or building a mentor/mentee relationship can be an effective way of resolving certain challenges. The one-to-one format of most coaching and mentor relationships can really help solve the challenges those individuals are having and benefit the organization as a result.

A great mentor can be invaluable when it comes to spotting potential problems before they arise and coming to understand a mentee very well has a host of other business benefits. You might run an internal mentorship program to help develop your team’s problem solving skills and strategies or as part of a large learning and development program. External coaches can also be an important part of your problem solving strategy, filling skills gaps for your management team or helping with specific business issues. 

Now we’ve explored the problem solving process and the steps you will want to go through in order to have an effective session, let’s look at the skills you and your team need to be more effective problem solvers.

Problem solving skills are highly sought after, whatever industry or team you work in. Organizations are keen to employ people who are able to approach problems thoughtfully and find strong, realistic solutions. Whether you are a facilitator , a team leader or a developer, being an effective problem solver is a skill you’ll want to develop.

Problem solving skills form a whole suite of techniques and approaches that an individual uses to not only identify problems but to discuss them productively before then developing appropriate solutions.

Here are some of the most important problem solving skills everyone from executives to junior staff members should learn. We’ve also included an activity or exercise from the SessionLab library that can help you and your team develop that skill. 

If you’re running a workshop or training session to try and improve problem solving skills in your team, try using these methods to supercharge your process!

Active listening

Active listening is one of the most important skills anyone who works with people can possess. In short, active listening is a technique used to not only better understand what is being said by an individual, but also to be more aware of the underlying message the speaker is trying to convey. When it comes to problem solving, active listening is integral for understanding the position of every participant and to clarify the challenges, ideas and solutions they bring to the table.

Some active listening skills include:

• Paying complete attention to the speaker.
• Removing distractions.
• Avoid interruption.
• Taking the time to fully understand before preparing a rebuttal.
• Responding respectfully and appropriately.
• Demonstrate attentiveness and positivity with an open posture, making eye contact with the speaker, smiling and nodding if appropriate. Show that you are listening and encourage them to continue.
• Be aware of and respectful of feelings. Judge the situation and respond appropriately. You can disagree without being disrespectful.   
• Observe body language. 
• Paraphrase what was said in your own words, either mentally or verbally.
• Remain neutral. 
• Reflect and take a moment before responding.
• Ask deeper questions based on what is said and clarify points where necessary.   

Active Listening   #hyperisland   #skills   #active listening   #remote-friendly   This activity supports participants to reflect on a question and generate their own solutions using simple principles of active listening and peer coaching. It’s an excellent introduction to active listening but can also be used with groups that are already familiar with it. Participants work in groups of three and take turns being: “the subject”, the listener, and the observer.

Analytical skills

All problem solving models require strong analytical skills, particularly during the beginning of the process and when it comes to analyzing how solutions have performed.

Analytical skills are primarily focused on performing an effective analysis by collecting, studying and parsing data related to a problem or opportunity. 

It often involves spotting patterns, being able to see things from different perspectives and using observable facts and data to make suggestions or produce insight. 

Analytical skills are also important at every stage of the problem solving process and by having these skills, you can ensure that any ideas or solutions you create or backed up analytically and have been sufficiently thought out.

Nine Whys   #innovation   #issue analysis   #liberating structures   With breathtaking simplicity, you can rapidly clarify for individuals and a group what is essentially important in their work. You can quickly reveal when a compelling purpose is missing in a gathering and avoid moving forward without clarity. When a group discovers an unambiguous shared purpose, more freedom and more responsibility are unleashed. You have laid the foundation for spreading and scaling innovations with fidelity.

Collaboration

Trying to solve problems on your own is difficult. Being able to collaborate effectively, with a free exchange of ideas, to delegate and be a productive member of a team is hugely important to all problem solving strategies.

Remember that whatever your role, collaboration is integral, and in a problem solving process, you are all working together to find the best solution for everyone. 

Marshmallow challenge with debriefing   #teamwork   #team   #leadership   #collaboration   In eighteen minutes, teams must build the tallest free-standing structure out of 20 sticks of spaghetti, one yard of tape, one yard of string, and one marshmallow. The marshmallow needs to be on top. The Marshmallow Challenge was developed by Tom Wujec, who has done the activity with hundreds of groups around the world. Visit the Marshmallow Challenge website for more information. This version has an extra debriefing question added with sample questions focusing on roles within the team.

Communication  

Being an effective communicator means being empathetic, clear and succinct, asking the right questions, and demonstrating active listening skills throughout any discussion or meeting. 

In a problem solving setting, you need to communicate well in order to progress through each stage of the process effectively. As a team leader, it may also fall to you to facilitate communication between parties who may not see eye to eye. Effective communication also means helping others to express themselves and be heard in a group.

Bus Trip   #feedback   #communication   #appreciation   #closing   #thiagi   #team   This is one of my favourite feedback games. I use Bus Trip at the end of a training session or a meeting, and I use it all the time. The game creates a massive amount of energy with lots of smiles, laughs, and sometimes even a teardrop or two.

Creative problem solving skills can be some of the best tools in your arsenal. Thinking creatively, being able to generate lots of ideas and come up with out of the box solutions is useful at every step of the process. 

The kinds of problems you will likely discuss in a problem solving workshop are often difficult to solve, and by approaching things in a fresh, creative manner, you can often create more innovative solutions.

Having practical creative skills is also a boon when it comes to problem solving. If you can help create quality design sketches and prototypes in record time, it can help bring a team to alignment more quickly or provide a base for further iteration.

The paper clip method   #sharing   #creativity   #warm up   #idea generation   #brainstorming   The power of brainstorming. A training for project leaders, creativity training, and to catalyse getting new solutions.

Critical thinking

Critical thinking is one of the fundamental problem solving skills you’ll want to develop when working on developing solutions. Critical thinking is the ability to analyze, rationalize and evaluate while being aware of personal bias, outlying factors and remaining open-minded.

Defining and analyzing problems without deploying critical thinking skills can mean you and your team go down the wrong path. Developing solutions to complex issues requires critical thinking too – ensuring your team considers all possibilities and rationally evaluating them. 

Agreement-Certainty Matrix   #issue analysis   #liberating structures   #problem solving   You can help individuals or groups avoid the frequent mistake of trying to solve a problem with methods that are not adapted to the nature of their challenge. The combination of two questions makes it possible to easily sort challenges into four categories: simple, complicated, complex , and chaotic .  A problem is simple when it can be solved reliably with practices that are easy to duplicate.  It is complicated when experts are required to devise a sophisticated solution that will yield the desired results predictably.  A problem is complex when there are several valid ways to proceed but outcomes are not predictable in detail.  Chaotic is when the context is too turbulent to identify a path forward.  A loose analogy may be used to describe these differences: simple is like following a recipe, complicated like sending a rocket to the moon, complex like raising a child, and chaotic is like the game “Pin the Tail on the Donkey.”  The Liberating Structures Matching Matrix in Chapter 5 can be used as the first step to clarify the nature of a challenge and avoid the mismatches between problems and solutions that are frequently at the root of chronic, recurring problems.

Data analysis 

Though it shares lots of space with general analytical skills, data analysis skills are something you want to cultivate in their own right in order to be an effective problem solver.

Being good at data analysis doesn’t just mean being able to find insights from data, but also selecting the appropriate data for a given issue, interpreting it effectively and knowing how to model and present that data. Depending on the problem at hand, it might also include a working knowledge of specific data analysis tools and procedures. 

Having a solid grasp of data analysis techniques is useful if you’re leading a problem solving workshop but if you’re not an expert, don’t worry. Bring people into the group who has this skill set and help your team be more effective as a result.

Decision making

All problems need a solution and all solutions require that someone make the decision to implement them. Without strong decision making skills, teams can become bogged down in discussion and less effective as a result. 

Making decisions is a key part of the problem solving process. It’s important to remember that decision making is not restricted to the leadership team. Every staff member makes decisions every day and developing these skills ensures that your team is able to solve problems at any scale. Remember that making decisions does not mean leaping to the first solution but weighing up the options and coming to an informed, well thought out solution to any given problem that works for the whole team.

Lightning Decision Jam (LDJ)   #action   #decision making   #problem solving   #issue analysis   #innovation   #design   #remote-friendly   The problem with anything that requires creative thinking is that it’s easy to get lost—lose focus and fall into the trap of having useless, open-ended, unstructured discussions. Here’s the most effective solution I’ve found: Replace all open, unstructured discussion with a clear process. What to use this exercise for: Anything which requires a group of people to make decisions, solve problems or discuss challenges. It’s always good to frame an LDJ session with a broad topic, here are some examples: The conversion flow of our checkout Our internal design process How we organise events Keeping up with our competition Improving sales flow

Dependability

Most complex organizational problems require multiple people to be involved in delivering the solution. Ensuring that the team and organization can depend on you to take the necessary actions and communicate where necessary is key to ensuring problems are solved effectively.

Being dependable also means working to deadlines and to brief. It is often a matter of creating trust in a team so that everyone can depend on one another to complete the agreed actions in the agreed time frame so that the team can move forward together. Being undependable can create problems of friction and can limit the effectiveness of your solutions so be sure to bear this in mind throughout a project. 

Team Purpose & Culture   #team   #hyperisland   #culture   #remote-friendly   This is an essential process designed to help teams define their purpose (why they exist) and their culture (how they work together to achieve that purpose). Defining these two things will help any team to be more focused and aligned. With support of tangible examples from other companies, the team members work as individuals and a group to codify the way they work together. The goal is a visual manifestation of both the purpose and culture that can be put up in the team’s work space.

Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence is an important skill for any successful team member, whether communicating internally or with clients or users. In the problem solving process, emotional intelligence means being attuned to how people are feeling and thinking, communicating effectively and being self-aware of what you bring to a room. 

There are often differences of opinion when working through problem solving processes, and it can be easy to let things become impassioned or combative. Developing your emotional intelligence means being empathetic to your colleagues and managing your own emotions throughout the problem and solution process. Be kind, be thoughtful and put your points across care and attention. 

Being emotionally intelligent is a skill for life and by deploying it at work, you can not only work efficiently but empathetically. Check out the emotional culture workshop template for more!

Facilitation

As we’ve clarified in our facilitation skills post, facilitation is the art of leading people through processes towards agreed-upon objectives in a manner that encourages participation, ownership, and creativity by all those involved. While facilitation is a set of interrelated skills in itself, the broad definition of facilitation can be invaluable when it comes to problem solving. Leading a team through a problem solving process is made more effective if you improve and utilize facilitation skills – whether you’re a manager, team leader or external stakeholder.

The Six Thinking Hats   #creative thinking   #meeting facilitation   #problem solving   #issue resolution   #idea generation   #conflict resolution   The Six Thinking Hats are used by individuals and groups to separate out conflicting styles of thinking. They enable and encourage a group of people to think constructively together in exploring and implementing change, rather than using argument to fight over who is right and who is wrong.

Flexibility 

Being flexible is a vital skill when it comes to problem solving. This does not mean immediately bowing to pressure or changing your opinion quickly: instead, being flexible is all about seeing things from new perspectives, receiving new information and factoring it into your thought process.

Flexibility is also important when it comes to rolling out solutions. It might be that other organizational projects have greater priority or require the same resources as your chosen solution. Being flexible means understanding needs and challenges across the team and being open to shifting or arranging your own schedule as necessary. Again, this does not mean immediately making way for other projects. It’s about articulating your own needs, understanding the needs of others and being able to come to a meaningful compromise.

The Creativity Dice   #creativity   #problem solving   #thiagi   #issue analysis   Too much linear thinking is hazardous to creative problem solving. To be creative, you should approach the problem (or the opportunity) from different points of view. You should leave a thought hanging in mid-air and move to another. This skipping around prevents premature closure and lets your brain incubate one line of thought while you consciously pursue another.

Working in any group can lead to unconscious elements of groupthink or situations in which you may not wish to be entirely honest. Disagreeing with the opinions of the executive team or wishing to save the feelings of a coworker can be tricky to navigate, but being honest is absolutely vital when to comes to developing effective solutions and ensuring your voice is heard. 

Remember that being honest does not mean being brutally candid. You can deliver your honest feedback and opinions thoughtfully and without creating friction by using other skills such as emotional intelligence. 

Explore your Values   #hyperisland   #skills   #values   #remote-friendly   Your Values is an exercise for participants to explore what their most important values are. It’s done in an intuitive and rapid way to encourage participants to follow their intuitive feeling rather than over-thinking and finding the “correct” values. It is a good exercise to use to initiate reflection and dialogue around personal values.

Initiative 

The problem solving process is multi-faceted and requires different approaches at certain points of the process. Taking initiative to bring problems to the attention of the team, collect data or lead the solution creating process is always valuable. You might even roadtest your own small scale solutions or brainstorm before a session. Taking initiative is particularly effective if you have good deal of knowledge in that area or have ownership of a particular project and want to get things kickstarted.

That said, be sure to remember to honor the process and work in service of the team. If you are asked to own one part of the problem solving process and you don’t complete that task because your initiative leads you to work on something else, that’s not an effective method of solving business challenges.

15% Solutions   #action   #liberating structures   #remote-friendly   You can reveal the actions, however small, that everyone can do immediately. At a minimum, these will create momentum, and that may make a BIG difference.  15% Solutions show that there is no reason to wait around, feel powerless, or fearful. They help people pick it up a level. They get individuals and the group to focus on what is within their discretion instead of what they cannot change.  With a very simple question, you can flip the conversation to what can be done and find solutions to big problems that are often distributed widely in places not known in advance. Shifting a few grains of sand may trigger a landslide and change the whole landscape.

Impartiality

A particularly useful problem solving skill for product owners or managers is the ability to remain impartial throughout much of the process. In practice, this means treating all points of view and ideas brought forward in a meeting equally and ensuring that your own areas of interest or ownership are not favored over others. 

There may be a stage in the process where a decision maker has to weigh the cost and ROI of possible solutions against the company roadmap though even then, ensuring that the decision made is based on merit and not personal opinion. 

Empathy map   #frame insights   #create   #design   #issue analysis   An empathy map is a tool to help a design team to empathize with the people they are designing for. You can make an empathy map for a group of people or for a persona. To be used after doing personas when more insights are needed.

Being a good leader means getting a team aligned, energized and focused around a common goal. In the problem solving process, strong leadership helps ensure that the process is efficient, that any conflicts are resolved and that a team is managed in the direction of success.

It’s common for managers or executives to assume this role in a problem solving workshop, though it’s important that the leader maintains impartiality and does not bulldoze the group in a particular direction. Remember that good leadership means working in service of the purpose and team and ensuring the workshop is a safe space for employees of any level to contribute. Take a look at our leadership games and activities post for more exercises and methods to help improve leadership in your organization.

Leadership Pizza   #leadership   #team   #remote-friendly   This leadership development activity offers a self-assessment framework for people to first identify what skills, attributes and attitudes they find important for effective leadership, and then assess their own development and initiate goal setting.

In the context of problem solving, mediation is important in keeping a team engaged, happy and free of conflict. When leading or facilitating a problem solving workshop, you are likely to run into differences of opinion. Depending on the nature of the problem, certain issues may be brought up that are emotive in nature. 

Being an effective mediator means helping those people on either side of such a divide are heard, listen to one another and encouraged to find common ground and a resolution. Mediating skills are useful for leaders and managers in many situations and the problem solving process is no different.

Conflict Responses   #hyperisland   #team   #issue resolution   A workshop for a team to reflect on past conflicts, and use them to generate guidelines for effective conflict handling. The workshop uses the Thomas-Killman model of conflict responses to frame a reflective discussion. Use it to open up a discussion around conflict with a team.

Planning 

Solving organizational problems is much more effective when following a process or problem solving model. Planning skills are vital in order to structure, deliver and follow-through on a problem solving workshop and ensure your solutions are intelligently deployed.

Planning skills include the ability to organize tasks and a team, plan and design the process and take into account any potential challenges. Taking the time to plan carefully can save time and frustration later in the process and is valuable for ensuring a team is positioned for success.

3 Action Steps   #hyperisland   #action   #remote-friendly   This is a small-scale strategic planning session that helps groups and individuals to take action toward a desired change. It is often used at the end of a workshop or programme. The group discusses and agrees on a vision, then creates some action steps that will lead them towards that vision. The scope of the challenge is also defined, through discussion of the helpful and harmful factors influencing the group.

Prioritization

As organisations grow, the scale and variation of problems they face multiplies. Your team or is likely to face numerous challenges in different areas and so having the skills to analyze and prioritize becomes very important, particularly for those in leadership roles.

A thorough problem solving process is likely to deliver multiple solutions and you may have several different problems you wish to solve simultaneously. Prioritization is the ability to measure the importance, value, and effectiveness of those possible solutions and choose which to enact and in what order. The process of prioritization is integral in ensuring the biggest challenges are addressed with the most impactful solutions.

Impact and Effort Matrix   #gamestorming   #decision making   #action   #remote-friendly   In this decision-making exercise, possible actions are mapped based on two factors: effort required to implement and potential impact. Categorizing ideas along these lines is a useful technique in decision making, as it obliges contributors to balance and evaluate suggested actions before committing to them.

Project management

Some problem solving skills are utilized in a workshop or ideation phases, while others come in useful when it comes to decision making. Overseeing an entire problem solving process and ensuring its success requires strong project management skills. 

While project management incorporates many of the other skills listed here, it is important to note the distinction of considering all of the factors of a project and managing them successfully. Being able to negotiate with stakeholders, manage tasks, time and people, consider costs and ROI, and tie everything together is massively helpful when going through the problem solving process. 

Record keeping

Working out meaningful solutions to organizational challenges is only one part of the process.  Thoughtfully documenting and keeping records of each problem solving step for future consultation is important in ensuring efficiency and meaningful change. 

For example, some problems may be lower priority than others but can be revisited in the future. If the team has ideated on solutions and found some are not up to the task, record those so you can rule them out and avoiding repeating work. Keeping records of the process also helps you improve and refine your problem solving model next time around!

Personal Kanban   #gamestorming   #action   #agile   #project planning   Personal Kanban is a tool for organizing your work to be more efficient and productive. It is based on agile methods and principles.

Research skills

Conducting research to support both the identification of problems and the development of appropriate solutions is important for an effective process. Knowing where to go to collect research, how to conduct research efficiently, and identifying pieces of research are relevant are all things a good researcher can do well. 

In larger groups, not everyone has to demonstrate this ability in order for a problem solving workshop to be effective. That said, having people with research skills involved in the process, particularly if they have existing area knowledge, can help ensure the solutions that are developed with data that supports their intention. Remember that being able to deliver the results of research efficiently and in a way the team can easily understand is also important. The best data in the world is only as effective as how it is delivered and interpreted.

Customer experience map   #ideation   #concepts   #research   #design   #issue analysis   #remote-friendly   Customer experience mapping is a method of documenting and visualizing the experience a customer has as they use the product or service. It also maps out their responses to their experiences. To be used when there is a solution (even in a conceptual stage) that can be analyzed.

Risk management

Managing risk is an often overlooked part of the problem solving process. Solutions are often developed with the intention of reducing exposure to risk or solving issues that create risk but sometimes, great solutions are more experimental in nature and as such, deploying them needs to be carefully considered. 

Managing risk means acknowledging that there may be risks associated with more out of the box solutions or trying new things, but that this must be measured against the possible benefits and other organizational factors. 

Be informed, get the right data and stakeholders in the room and you can appropriately factor risk into your decision making process. 

Decisions, Decisions…   #communication   #decision making   #thiagi   #action   #issue analysis   When it comes to decision-making, why are some of us more prone to take risks while others are risk-averse? One explanation might be the way the decision and options were presented.  This exercise, based on Kahneman and Tversky’s classic study , illustrates how the framing effect influences our judgement and our ability to make decisions . The participants are divided into two groups. Both groups are presented with the same problem and two alternative programs for solving them. The two programs both have the same consequences but are presented differently. The debriefing discussion examines how the framing of the program impacted the participant’s decision.

Team-building 

No single person is as good at problem solving as a team. Building an effective team and helping them come together around a common purpose is one of the most important problem solving skills, doubly so for leaders. By bringing a team together and helping them work efficiently, you pave the way for team ownership of a problem and the development of effective solutions. 

In a problem solving workshop, it can be tempting to jump right into the deep end, though taking the time to break the ice, energize the team and align them with a game or exercise will pay off over the course of the day.

Remember that you will likely go through the problem solving process multiple times over an organization’s lifespan and building a strong team culture will make future problem solving more effective. It’s also great to work with people you know, trust and have fun with. Working on team building in and out of the problem solving process is a hallmark of successful teams that can work together to solve business problems.

9 Dimensions Team Building Activity   #ice breaker   #teambuilding   #team   #remote-friendly   9 Dimensions is a powerful activity designed to build relationships and trust among team members. There are 2 variations of this icebreaker. The first version is for teams who want to get to know each other better. The second version is for teams who want to explore how they are working together as a team.

Time management 

The problem solving process is designed to lead a team from identifying a problem through to delivering a solution and evaluating its effectiveness. Without effective time management skills or timeboxing of tasks, it can be easy for a team to get bogged down or be inefficient.

By using a problem solving model and carefully designing your workshop, you can allocate time efficiently and trust that the process will deliver the results you need in a good timeframe.

Time management also comes into play when it comes to rolling out solutions, particularly those that are experimental in nature. Having a clear timeframe for implementing and evaluating solutions is vital for ensuring their success and being able to pivot if necessary.

Improving your skills at problem solving is often a career-long pursuit though there are methods you can use to make the learning process more efficient and to supercharge your problem solving skillset.

Remember that the skills you need to be a great problem solver have a large overlap with those skills you need to be effective in any role. Investing time and effort to develop your active listening or critical thinking skills is valuable in any context. Here are 7 ways to improve your problem solving skills.

Share best practices

Remember that your team is an excellent source of skills, wisdom, and techniques and that you should all take advantage of one another where possible. Best practices that one team has for solving problems, conducting research or making decisions should be shared across the organization. If you have in-house staff that have done active listening training or are data analysis pros, have them lead a training session. 

Your team is one of your best resources. Create space and internal processes for the sharing of skills so that you can all grow together. 

Ask for help and attend training

Once you’ve figured out you have a skills gap, the next step is to take action to fill that skills gap. That might be by asking your superior for training or coaching, or liaising with team members with that skill set. You might even attend specialized training for certain skills – active listening or critical thinking, for example, are business-critical skills that are regularly offered as part of a training scheme.

Whatever method you choose, remember that taking action of some description is necessary for growth. Whether that means practicing, getting help, attending training or doing some background reading, taking active steps to improve your skills is the way to go.

Learn a process 

Problem solving can be complicated, particularly when attempting to solve large problems for the first time. Using a problem solving process helps give structure to your problem solving efforts and focus on creating outcomes, rather than worrying about the format. 

Tools such as the seven-step problem solving process above are effective because not only do they feature steps that will help a team solve problems, they also develop skills along the way. Each step asks for people to engage with the process using different skills and in doing so, helps the team learn and grow together. Group processes of varying complexity and purpose can also be found in the SessionLab library of facilitation techniques . Using a tried and tested process and really help ease the learning curve for both those leading such a process, as well as those undergoing the purpose.

Effective teams make decisions about where they should and shouldn’t expend additional effort. By using a problem solving process, you can focus on the things that matter, rather than stumbling towards a solution haphazardly. 

Create a feedback loop

Some skills gaps are more obvious than others. It’s possible that your perception of your active listening skills differs from those of your colleagues. 

It’s valuable to create a system where team members can provide feedback in an ordered and friendly manner so they can all learn from one another. Only by identifying areas of improvement can you then work to improve them. 

Remember that feedback systems require oversight and consideration so that they don’t turn into a place to complain about colleagues. Design the system intelligently so that you encourage the creation of learning opportunities, rather than encouraging people to list their pet peeves.

While practice might not make perfect, it does make the problem solving process easier. If you are having trouble with critical thinking, don’t shy away from doing it. Get involved where you can and stretch those muscles as regularly as possible. 

Problem solving skills come more naturally to some than to others and that’s okay. Take opportunities to get involved and see where you can practice your skills in situations outside of a workshop context. Try collaborating in other circumstances at work or conduct data analysis on your own projects. You can often develop those skills you need for problem solving simply by doing them. Get involved!

Use expert exercises and methods

Learn from the best. Our library of 700+ facilitation techniques is full of activities and methods that help develop the skills you need to be an effective problem solver. Check out our templates to see how to approach problem solving and other organizational challenges in a structured and intelligent manner.

There is no single approach to improving problem solving skills, but by using the techniques employed by others you can learn from their example and develop processes that have seen proven results. 

Try new ways of thinking and change your mindset

Using tried and tested exercises that you know well can help deliver results, but you do run the risk of missing out on the learning opportunities offered by new approaches. As with the problem solving process, changing your mindset can remove blockages and be used to develop your problem solving skills.

Most teams have members with mixed skill sets and specialties. Mix people from different teams and share skills and different points of view. Teach your customer support team how to use design thinking methods or help your developers with conflict resolution techniques. Try switching perspectives with facilitation techniques like Flip It! or by using new problem solving methodologies or models. Give design thinking, liberating structures or lego serious play a try if you want to try a new approach. You will find that framing problems in new ways and using existing skills in new contexts can be hugely useful for personal development and improving your skillset. It’s also a lot of fun to try new things. Give it a go!

Encountering business challenges and needing to find appropriate solutions is not unique to your organization. Lots of very smart people have developed methods, theories and approaches to help develop problem solving skills and create effective solutions. Learn from them!

Books like The Art of Thinking Clearly , Think Smarter, or Thinking Fast, Thinking Slow are great places to start, though it’s also worth looking at blogs related to organizations facing similar problems to yours, or browsing for success stories. Seeing how Dropbox massively increased growth and working backward can help you see the skills or approach you might be lacking to solve that same problem. Learning from others by reading their stories or approaches can be time-consuming but ultimately rewarding.

A tired, distracted mind is not in the best position to learn new skills. It can be tempted to burn the candle at both ends and develop problem solving skills outside of work. Absolutely use your time effectively and take opportunities for self-improvement, though remember that rest is hugely important and that without letting your brain rest, you cannot be at your most effective. 

Creating distance between yourself and the problem you might be facing can also be useful. By letting an idea sit, you can find that a better one presents itself or you can develop it further. Take regular breaks when working and create a space for downtime. Remember that working smarter is preferable to working harder and that self-care is important for any effective learning or improvement process.

Want to design better group processes?

Over to you

Now we’ve explored some of the key problem solving skills and the problem solving steps necessary for an effective process, you’re ready to begin developing more effective solutions and leading problem solving workshops.

Need more inspiration? Check out our post on problem solving activities you can use when guiding a group towards a great solution in your next workshop or meeting. Have questions? Did you have a great problem solving technique you use with your team? Get in touch in the comments below. We’d love to chat!

James Smart is Head of Content at SessionLab. He’s also a creative facilitator who has run workshops and designed courses for establishments like the National Centre for Writing, UK. He especially enjoys working with young people and empowering others in their creative practice.

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Going from a mere idea to a workshop that delivers results for your clients can feel like a daunting task. In this piece, we will shine a light on all the work behind the scenes and help you learn how to plan a workshop from start to finish. On a good day, facilitation can feel like effortless magic, but that is mostly the result of backstage work, foresight, and a lot of careful planning. Read on to learn a step-by-step approach to breaking the process of planning a workshop into small, manageable chunks.  The flow starts with the first meeting with a client to define the purposes of a workshop.…

Effective online tools are a necessity for smooth and engaging virtual workshops and meetings. But how do you choose the right ones? Do you sometimes feel that the good old pen and paper or MS Office toolkit and email leaves you struggling to stay on top of managing and delivering your workshop? Fortunately, there are plenty of great workshop tools to make your life easier when you need to facilitate a meeting and lead workshops. In this post, we’ll share our favorite online tools you can use to make your life easier and run better workshops and meetings. In fact, there are plenty of free online workshop tools and meeting…

How does learning work? A clever 9-year-old once told me: “I know I am learning something new when I am surprised.” The science of adult learning tells us that, in order to learn new skills (which, unsurprisingly, is harder for adults to do than kids) grown-ups need to first get into a specific headspace.  In a business, this approach is often employed in a training session where employees learn new skills or work on professional development. But how do you ensure your training is effective? In this guide, we'll explore how to create an effective training session plan and run engaging training sessions. As team leader, project manager, or consultant,…

Design your next workshop with SessionLab

Join the 150,000 facilitators using SessionLab

Sign up for free

• The Open University
• Accessibility hub
• Guest user / Sign out
• Study with The Open University

My OpenLearn Profile

Personalise your OpenLearn profile, save your favourite content and get recognition for your learning

This course had been around for some time and there are now some much more topical and useful free courses to try. If you have earned a badge or statement of participation for this course, don’t worry, they will remain in your MyOpenLearn profile.

Alison's New App is now available on iOS and Android! Download Now

Are you a business or organisation seeking to train and upskill your employees?

If yes, check out Alison’s Free LMS here!

header.all_certificate_courses

Personal development, sales & marketing, engineering & construction, teaching & academics.

Become an Alison Affiliate in one click, and start earning money by sharing any page on the Alison website.

• Change Language

Turn Your Thinking Around: New Approaches to Problem-Solving

This free online course includes:.

• Hours of Learning
• CPD Accreditation
• Final Assessment

Rate This Course & Get Better Recommendations!

Thanks for your review, in this free course, you will learn how to.

Problem-solving refers to a person’s ability to successfully manage and find solutions for complex and unexpected situations in our daily life and workplace. The ability to solve simple and complex problems every day is essential to individuals and organizations. Employees with strong problem-solving skills often rise through the ranks quickly in organizations. This insightful free online course will teach you new problem-solving tools to solve problems efficiently and effectively. You will start by learning about the Copernican Revolution to develop a new way of thinking, find out why problem-solving efforts fail and study the principles of creative thinking.

Next, you will discover new problem-solving tools like the higher-level view and word association to enhance the skills of any problem-solving team. You will then learn to review processes in an organization, using a process map to identify areas for process improvement. Delve deeper into the root cause analysis of a problem to find better solutions. Learn to uncover the stages in problem-solving tools that work best with each of them, how to organize an effective problem-solving team and how to quantify the benefits of problem-solving.

Problem-solving skills are universally sought-after by employers. Many businesses rely on their employees to identify and effectively solve business problems. Without problem-solving skills, you spend time worrying about what you will do in case of a problem, and you may make decisions that have negative consequences on the organization. This course will teach you in-demand skills that will give you a competitive edge and make a big difference in your career and personal life. Anyone who wants to become proficient in problem-solving will find this course beneficial. Start learning today and become an effective problem-solver!

All Alison courses are free to enrol study and complete. To successfully complete this course and become an Alison Graduate, you need to achieve 80% or higher in each course assessment. Once you have completed this course, you have the option to acquire an official Diploma, which is a great way to share your achievement with the world.

Your Alison is:

• Ideal for sharing with potential employers
• Great for your CV, professional social media profiles and job applications.
• An indication of your commitment to continuously learn, upskill & achieve high results.
• An incentive for you to continue empowering yourself through lifelong learning.

Alison offers 3 types of Diplomas for completed Diploma courses:

• Digital : a downloadable in PDF format immediately available to you when you complete your purchase.
• : a physical version of your officially branded and security-marked , posted to you with FREE shipping.
• Framed : a physical version of your officially branded and security marked in a stylish frame, posted to you with FREE shipping.

All s are available to purchase through the Alison Shop . For more information on purchasing Alison , please visit our FAQs . If you decide not to purchase your Alison , you can still demonstrate your achievement by sharing your Learner Record or Learner Achievement Verification, both of which are accessible from your Account Settings . For more details on our pricing, please visit our Pricing Page

Knowledge & Skills You Will Learn

Complete this cpd accredited course & get your certificate , certify your skills, stand out from the crowd, advance in your career.

Learner Reviews & Feedback For Turn Your Thinking Around: New Approaches to Problem-Solving

Want to create a customised learning path for your team.

Our dedicated Learning Advisors are here to help you curate a customised learning path tailored to your organisation's needs and goals.

Explore Careers Related To This Course

Not sure where to begin or even what you want to do.

Discover the career most suitable for you and get started in the field with a step-by-step plan.

About Your Alison Course Publisher

- alison stats, more free online courses by this publisher, learners who took this course also enrolled in, explore subjects related to this course.

Join our community of 40 million+ learners, upskill with CPD UK accredited courses, explore career development tools and psychometrics - all for free.

• Reset password form here

Enter your friend's email address

• Open access
• Published: 23 August 2024

Effects of integration interdisciplinary learning on student learning outcomes and healthcare-giving competence: a mixed methods study

• Bao-Huan Yang   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5546-1467 1 , 2 ,
• Kao-Wen Lo   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-8228-5879 1 ,
• Yuh-Shiow Li   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-3116-3828 1 , 3 &
• Kuo-Yu Chao   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2971-8468 1 , 4  

BMC Nursing volume  23 , Article number:  583 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

11 Accesses

Metrics details

Interdisciplinary collaboration is known to foster professional innovation and enhance student learning across different domains. However, the research on the effectiveness of integration of interdisciplinary learning in pediatric nursing education is limited. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the effectiveness of integrating game-based learning, an interdisciplinary approach to teaching, into pediatric nursing education’s play courses.

We used a mixed methods study with pre-test/post-test quantitative analyses and a descriptive qualitative analysis of students’ reflection journals. Data were collected between August 2019 and July 2020 to gauge course effectiveness. Quantitative data obtained from the questionnaires were analyzed using a t-test, correlation, and regression analysis. Qualitative data using students’ reflective journals were collected and analyzed using content analysis. One hundred and three second-year nursing students enrolled in a four-year nursing program. Nursing students attended classes in university classrooms and served learning in a kindergarten or hospital in Northern Taiwan.

The subscales of Students’ Learning Outcome in knowledge, abilities, and attitudes showed significantly higher mean post-test scores compared to pre-test scores: 26.15 (SD = 3.35) vs. 16.82 (SD = 4.49), p  < .001; 18.03 (SD = 2.13) vs. 11.43 (SD = 2.95), p  < .001; and 12.90 (SD = 2.12) vs. 8.72 (SD = 2.52), p  < .001. Furthermore, scores on the Service-Learning Abilities Scale indicated a significant increase in communication, problem-solving, knowledge application, and cross-cultural competence. Integrating instruction to improve problem-solving skills and knowledge application predicts student learning outcomes. Qualitative findings revealed nursing students’ reflections on integrating different learning areas, communication, problem-solving, and practical knowledge skills.

Conclusions

Integration of interdisciplinary learning effectively stimulates learning among nursing students and enhances their knowledge, abilities, and attitudes toward therapeutic play, benefiting children’s health. Our findings demonstrate that integration of interdisciplinary learning significantly enhances nursing students’ healthcare-giving competence, particularly in communication, problem-solving, knowledge application, and cross-cultural competence as measured by the Service-Learning Scale. Integrating social service with integration of interdisciplinary learning exposes nursing students to diverse challenges and needs, thereby enhancing their communication skills, knowledge application, and problem-solving abilities. Nursing students can blend knowledge and skills through integrated learning, which is crucial for nursing career preparation.

Trial registration

N/A. It was a survey on educational activities.

Peer Review reports

Recent environmental changes and pandemics have precipitated a health and development crisis for approximately 250 million children under the age of five [ 1 ], emphasizing the critical role of pediatric healthcare. Nurses are pivotal in addressing diverse needs in these challenging environments, necessitating interdisciplinary collaboration to optimize patient care. Bally et al. [ 2 ] demonstrated that integrating interprofessional education into pediatric nursing courses significantly improved nursing students’ collaborative practice skills. This intervention included pediatric endocrinologists and palliative care specialists, highlighting its potential to enhance patient care [ 2 ]. Similarly, Straub et al. [ 3 ] underscored the importance of early, structured interprofessional education in nursing curricula. Their study revealed that nurses gain essential competencies during undergraduate studies, crucial for effective pediatric care collaboration [ 3 ]. Integrating these findings highlights how interdisciplinary education not only enhances healthcare providers’ collaborative skills but also improves pediatric health outcomes amid current healthcare challenges.

Nurses play a vital role in caring for children facing health crises and supporting their families; timely interventions in these cases can significantly improve their overall quality of life. However, conventional nursing education alone is insufficient in adequately preparing nursing students to address the challenges associated with caring for children in such complex ecological environments. Nursing students require a comprehensive interdisciplinary approach that extends beyond traditional classroom education to effectively identify these health issues and initiate timely interventions.

Integration of interdisciplinary learning is defined as an educational approach where instructors from different disciplines collaborate to integrate their knowledge and methods, addressing common themes or issues to enhance the learning experience [ 4 , 5 ]. This method goes beyond merely presenting multiple perspectives; it synthesizes insights from various fields into a cohesive framework, fostering critical thinking, problem-solving, and the ability to navigate complex real-world problems [ 6 ]. In the context of our study, integration of interdisciplinary learning involved educators from different fields integrating their knowledge and methods to address common themes or issues. This approach provided nursing students with a richer and more comprehensive educational experience, better preparing them for the multifaceted challenges of healthcare practice.

Using the integration of interdisciplinary learning in the nursing curriculum, nursing students can benefit from a wide range of learning experiences that foster connections and associations across diverse academic and clinical domains. This approach empowers nursing students to expand their understanding beyond the confines of conventional classroom learning and apply their knowledge in real-world contexts [ 7 ]. Consequently, nursing students are equipped with effective strategies for enhancing the health outcomes of children facing environmental health challenges. This interdisciplinary approach not only enhances nursing students’ competencies in holistic patient care and collaborative practice but also effectively addresses the urgent needs of the affected children, enabling them to thrive in the face of developmental health crises.

Therapeutic play in pediatric care can be an essential tool to encourage children to express their emotions and knowledge about illness and surgery [ 8 ]. Nursing students are therefore increasingly using therapeutic games to communicate with children [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. While research has mainly focused on the effectiveness of therapeutic play in reducing postoperative pain, improving symptoms, and reducing anxiety during hospital stays [ 9 , 10 , 11 ], it is important to recognize that therapeutic play goes beyond addressing illness symptoms. It contributes to overall health promotion and growth in children. Furthermore, nursing education often provides a limited exploration of guidance methods that enhance nursing students’ competence in providing healthcare for children’s well-being. In contrast, early childhood education emphasizes the use of interactive strategies by faculties, such as facial expressions, gestures, and body movements, to enhance children’s engagement and facilitate their learning [ 12 ]. Integrating teachings from pediatric nursing and early childhood care can guide nursing students in supporting holistic health promotion, encompassing both clinical nursing skills for managing childhood illnesses and assisting children in developing and practicing healthy habits to mitigate health and development crises.

Integration of interdisciplinary learning involves the integration of two or more disciplines to foster knowledge exchange and the establishment of a unified field, driven by the recognition of professional demands and the imperative to equip nursing students with the ability to address complex societal issues. These problems constantly change and evolve, resulting in great uncertainty regarding their causes and effective solutions. In interdisciplinary research, scholars engage in collaborative interactions, fostering the growth of concepts, epistemologies, and methodologies across disciplines [ 13 ]. Interdisciplinary education can stimulate creativity and expose learners to new ideas and perspectives [ 14 ].

The integration of interdisciplinary learning projects implemented by the Departments of Nursing and Childcare Education is grounded in constructivist learning theory. It emphasizes nursing students’ active participation in knowledge construction and understanding. By integrating multiple disciplines, students develop a robust knowledge base, fostering profound learning and critical thinking [ 15 , 16 ]. Curriculum content integration also adheres to the following interdisciplinary collaborative teaching suggestions: (1) Design common course goals and learning outcomes to ensure that students have the same learning direction and goals, facilitating the integration of knowledge and skills from diverse disciplines [ 17 ]. The overarching objective is to enable therapeutic play in supporting holistic health promotion for children. (2) Develop teaching plans, which can use methods such as case discussions, role-playing, and practical exercises for teaching. In addition to the joint teaching of both departments, this course offers opportunities for students to visit hospital playrooms and participate in practical visits to kindergartens. (3) Establish a collaborative team environment to encourage student communication and cooperation [ 14 , 18 ]. Alongside group discussions, this course incorporates group practices involving clinical nurses and kindergarten faculties. This enables students to collectively leverage their expertise and strengths to accomplish the course goals. (4) Provide support and guidance to help students overcome obstacles and challenges between disciplines [ 15 , 16 ]. The joint teaching of both departments allows for the arrangement of professional instructors who can provide guidance and counseling and address any questions or doubts the nursing students may have. Some studies have proposed the establishment of a collaborative team environment to promote communication and cooperation among students from different fields. For instance, a collaboration between nursing and engineering students has been shown to foster industry–university cooperation [ 19 ]. Liao and Wang [ 20 ] developed teaching plans that incorporate methods such as case discussions and narrative medical teaching, which allow medical students from medicine and healthcare to interact with each other and listen to patients’ stories to improve their reflective thinking, empathy, and narrative writing skills. While integration of interdisciplinary learning has been shown to enhance nursing students’ cognition and interdisciplinary interaction skills, limited literature exists on how it can improve their childcare abilities, specifically within the context of nursing education.

In the integration of interdisciplinary learning projects between the Department of Childcare and Education and the Department of Nursing, assessing student learning is crucial. We use the Instructional Evaluation Scale by Lin et al. [ 21 ], which is designed to gauge Teachers’ Instructional Input and Students’ Learning Outcome, reflecting the dynamics between teaching, learning, and curriculum. It incorporates Bloom’s taxonomy to evaluate cognitive, ability, and affective domains, including facts, concepts, procedural and metacognitive knowledge, psychomotor abilities, and affective values. This scale aligns with the principles of the American Association for Higher Education and the educational reform goals set by the European Commission. Additionally, in line with the emphasis on real-world applications in the integration of interdisciplinary learning, we have chosen the Service-Learning Abilities Scale by Chao et al. [ 22 ], based on experiential learning theory. Centered on students, this scale assesses developments in self-knowledge, communication, problem-solving, citizenship, teamwork, self-reflection, knowledge application, caring for others, and cross-cultural competence through practice and reflection.

Therefore, this study aimed to explore whether integrating the curriculum of the Department of Childcare and Education with therapeutic play in nursing courses can improve nursing students’ abilities to use therapeutic games to enhance their clinical practice and care quality. We assessed the effect of integration of interdisciplinary learning on nursing students’ knowledge, abilities, attitudes, cross-cultural competence, problem-solving, knowledge application, and social service-related communication in a therapeutic play curriculum. The study proposes three hypotheses: following the interdisciplinary lessons, (1) nursing students would outperform their pre-test outcomes in the post-test learning outcomes concerning knowledge , abilities , and attitudes; (2) nursing students’ healthcare-giving competence , as measured by social service efficacy scores , are anticipated to improve in the post-test compared to the pre-test; and (3) there would be a direct correlation between nursing students’ course learning and social service outcomes.

This study employed a mixed methods design with two phases, utilizing qualitative findings from the second phase to interpret the quantitative data and enrich the research outcomes. Quantitative methods were used to evaluate students’ learning outcomes, while their reflective journals were qualitatively analyzed using content analysis to gain a comprehensive view of their learning outcomes.

This study examined the effect on learning outcomes, including knowledge, abilities, and attitudes, of integrating the Department of Childcare and Education game-based learning approaches into therapeutic play courses for nursing students. Further, it explored the effect on communication, problem-solving, application of knowledge, and cross-cultural competence through social service activities.

This study used two phases of a sequential explanatory approach with a mixed methods design. The first phase applied a pre-experimental, pre-test/post-test design to examine nursing students’ learning efficiencies. For the second phase, qualitative data were collected and analyzed from nursing students’ reflective journals to qualitatively evaluate student learning outcomes.

Participants

Sophomore nursing students were recruited to participate in this study and take the Therapeutic Play course. To calculate the sample size, we used G* Power 3.1 for t -testing and the calculation of means using the difference between two dependent means (matched pairs), a monitored effect size of 0.3, and a power of 0.8 [ 23 ]. At least 90 nursing students were required, and as the attrition rate was 20%, 108 nursing students were selected for the study. After we applied purposive sampling and explained the project, 119 nursing students enrolled, and 108 nursing students completed the course activities.

Measurement tools

Interdisciplinary therapeutic play curriculum.

Drawing from relevant literature, the principle of integration is articulated in the following statements [ 17 , 24 ]:

(1) The curriculum is presented in a series that guides nursing students throughout children’s lifespans.

The curriculum revolves around lessons on life stages, from infancy to adolescence, and the corresponding cognitive and social development at each stage. Learners discern therapeutic play education and childhood stages and play games to enhance their interaction and health education skills.

(2) The curriculum focuses on children’s cognitive , play , and social development.

The curriculum is based on the stages of children’s play from Piaget’s theory of cognitive development and the social stages of play from Parten’s play theory [ 25 ]. The Department of Childcare and Education divides play into six categories; namely, physical ability, self-care, cognitive ability, language ability, emotion recognition, and creative play [ 25 , 26 ]. Meanwhile, the Department of Nursing divides therapeutic play into functions such as emotional outlet, instructional, and physiological health-promoting play [ 27 ]. This study’s integrated curriculum is an application of therapeutic play focusing on child development and health. It enables nursing students to apply what they have learned and observed in kindergartens and hospital playrooms.

Integration of subjects in course unit

The Department of Childcare and Education and the Department of Nursing at Northern Taiwan University collaboratively designed an 18-week therapeutic play course to integrate various subjects and approaches. The curriculum integrates content by adhering to established interdisciplinary collaborative teaching principles, which include setting common goals, employing dynamic teaching methods such as case discussions and role-playing, fostering a collaborative team environment, and providing support to navigate interdisciplinary challenges [ 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ]. These principles were crucial in developing and validating the curriculum through discussions with primary faculties from both involved departments, ensuring alignment with the university’s standards.

Interdisciplinary Courses:

Development of Play in Early Childhood - Explores fundamental play aspects using insights from early childhood education and pediatric nursing to understand play’s role in child development.

Therapeutic Play for Infants - Designs activities to shift attention and soothe, incorporating emotional and physical play concepts.

Therapeutic Play for Toddlers - Focuses on lung expansion activities to enhance toddlers’ respiratory health through physical play.

Therapeutic and Developmental Play for Preschoolers - Combines guided play with storybooks to foster self-care and developmental skills.

Additional Modules include field expert guidance and practical implementations where nursing students apply learned concepts in real-world settings, receiving feedback to refine their skills.

Each course and module follows these principles, detailed further in Table  1 , ensuring effective integration of theoretical knowledge with practical application.

Questionnaires

The data collection tools in this study comprised two questionnaires: the Instructional Evaluation Scale and the Service-learning Abilities Scale.

(1) Instructional Evaluation Scale. Lin et al. [ 21 ] developed an instructional evaluation scale with 28 questions. Among them, 15 questions for “teachers’ instructional input” have three dimensions: course content and teaching arrangement (four items), teaching method and teacher–student interaction (seven items), and evaluation and feedback (four items). Thirteen questions for “students’ learning outcome” consist of three dimensions: knowledge (six items), ability (four items), and attitude (three items). Items were rated on a 5-point Likert scale, with higher scores indicating better student learning outcomes. The factor loadings ranged from 0.71 to 0.92, and the average variance extracted ranged from 0.59 to 0.75, thus showing good construct validity. In terms of reliability, Cronbach’s α of the internal consistency reliability of the three dimensions under “teachers’ instructional input” was between 0.87 and 0.89; while the internal consistency reliability of the three dimensions of “students’ learning outcome” was between 0.88 and 0.89, thereby revealing that all dimensions possess good evaluation criteria reliability [ 21 ]. This scale helped us understand interdisciplinary curriculum implementation, student learning, and teaching effectiveness. In terms of internal consistency reliability, Cronbach’s α of the three dimensions of “teachers’ instructional input” was between 0.89 and 0.94. The internal consistency reliability of the three dimensions of “students’ learning outcome” was between 0.87 and 0.95.

(2) Service-learning Abilities Scale. Chao et al. [ 28 ] developed and validated a 36-item service-learning abilities questionnaire for use in Asia. The questionnaire evaluates nine components consisting of four items each: (1) Self-Knowledge and Self-Confidence, (2) Communication Skills, (3) Problem-Solving Skills, (4) Citizenship and Social Responsibility, (5) Team Skills, (6) Self-Reflection, (7) Knowledge Application, (8) Caring for Others, and (9) Cross-Cultural Competence. Items are scored from 0 = completely disagree to 10 = completely agree. Higher scores indicate better service-learning skills. Cronbach’s α values for the nine subscales ranged from 0.86 to 0.93 [ 28 ]. In this study, Cronbach’s α ranged from 0.77 to 0.96 for the subscales.

(3) Qualitative questions. What are the perceived impacts of this course on the utilization of therapeutic play in pediatric care, particularly in knowledge acquisition, nursing skills, and competencies?

Data collection

The study period was from August 1, 2019, to July 31, 2020, and the course was conducted at a university in Northern Taiwan for 18 weeks, from September 18, 2019, to January 15, 2020. The nursing students were required to complete the instructional evaluation scale and the service-learning abilities scale at the beginning and end of the semester. Apart from attending classes, they were divided into 10 groups of 10–11 nursing students and provided social services for four hours in hospitals and kindergartens, with guidance from two pediatric nurses and three kindergarten faculties. In week 18, the nursing students presented their learning results to the nursing faculty through a 15-minute video or photo presentation per group. During and at the end of the semester, the nursing students shared their reflections in class regarding the teaching activities, learning experiences, and social service experiences to demonstrate their awareness of children’s health needs. The nursing faculty also required the nursing students to submit anonymous reflection sheets.

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS version 22.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA). The demographic characteristics of the participants were determined using descriptive statistics. We used a paired t-test to evaluate the difference between pre-and post-test scores on the instructional evaluation scale and service-learning abilities scale. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to compare the correlation between the two scales. Significance was set at p  < .05. Predictor variables were explored using multiple linear regression analysis. Using the study by Lindgren et al. [ 29 ] as a guide for collecting qualitative data, we labeled and coded content relevant to the research process and linked them to the nursing students’ reflections. During this analysis, the first author coded and analyzed the data, and other authors reviewed and made recommendations for all analyzed documentation and analysis results [ 29 ]. The analysis followed the outline of Lincoln and Guba [ 30 ] on the credibility, dependability, transferability, and confirmability principles for qualitative data analysis. For credibility, the first author employed peer debriefing: colleagues who were not directly involved in the research reviewed the findings and provided feedback to challenge and refine the interpretations. Dependability was ensured through the code-recode strategy: the first author coded the data, took a break, and then re-coded the same data to check for consistency in their interpretations. Transferability was achieved by purposive sampling: participants were selected based on specific criteria relevant to the research question, ensuring that the findings were pertinent to similar contexts or populations. Confirmability was established through reflexivity: the first author engaged in ongoing self-reflection to recognize and mitigate potential biases and assumptions that could influence the study [ 30 ].

Integrating mixed methods

In this mixed methods study, we integrated quantitative and qualitative findings to comprehensively understand the research problem. Quantitative data provided a broad statistical base, allowing us to measure and analyze trends, patterns, and relationships among variables using scales such as the Instructional Evaluation Scale and the Service-Learning Abilities Scale to quantify nursing students’ learning outcomes.

Qualitative data, gathered from the nursing students’ reflective journals, offered detailed insights into their learning experiences, providing rich narrative data that explored the context and deeper meanings behind the quantitative results.

Using a sequential explanatory approach, we first evaluated students’ learning outcomes quantitatively, then analyzed their journals qualitatively. This integration of mixed methods capitalized on the quantitative rigor and qualitative depth, yielding a nuanced and reliable response to our research questions [ 31 ].

Ethical approval

The study was approved by Chang Gung Medical Foundation Institutional Review Board (Approval no. 201801939B0) and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. We explained the research and course process to the nursing students comprehensively, before the class. The nursing students agreed to participate in the research freely. Participants were informed that their information would be kept private, all participants would be tagged anonymously and digitally, and any personal information that may be attributable to them would be deleted.

Participant characteristics

A total of 119 nursing students were enrolled in the course. Among them, 11 nursing students (two boys and nine girls) joined in the middle of the course and did not complete the pre-test. For these 11 students, the post-test mean ± SD of the two subscales, “teachers’ instructional input” and “students’ learning outcome,” of the instructional evaluation scale was 62.09 ± 10.71 and 55.64 ± 9.37, respectively. However, it was 257.45 ± 34.15 for the service-learning abilities scale. Although the average score of the 11 nursing students in the post-test was lower than that of all students who participated in the whole process, their results ranged from moderate to good. Overall, 108 nursing students completed the course activities, and five incomplete questionnaires were deleted; hence, 103 nursing students participated (89 = female, 86.4%). The participants were aged 19–27, with an average age of 19.66 years.

Quantitative outcome

The post-test mean scores for the Instructional Evaluation Scale and its subscales, Students’ Learning Outcome and Teachers’ Instructional Input, and the Service-Learning Abilities Scale were significantly higher than the pre-test scores ( p  < .001; Table  2 ). The Post hoc power of all scales was > 90%. The pre-test/post-test showed significant mean differences across all scales (95% confidence interval [CI]). Teachers’ Instructional Input: 17.71–22.51, Students’ Learning Outcome: 16.80–22.30, and Service-Learning Abilities Scale: 95.15 to 125.81. Moreover, there is a significant improvement in the Students’ Learning Outcome and Service-Learning Abilities Scale scores from pre-test to post-test, indicating that the integrated curriculum effectively enhances students’ social service skills (Table  3 ). The mean of both subscales of the Instructional Evaluation Scale was as high as 85%. In the Service-Learning Abilities Scale, scores for the Citizenship and Social Responsibility items were lower than the pre-test, while all other subscales showed a significant increase compared to the pre-test. The overall improvement in Students’ Learning Outcome and the scores for Citizenship and Social Responsibility from pre-test to post-test were positively correlated ( r  = .635, p  < .001). The three items with the highest scores (Team Skills, Self-Knowledge and Self-Confidence, and Knowledge Application) reached more than 85%. The Cross-Cultural Competence score was less than 80% of the total score. Multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the effects the scores for Team Skills, Self-Knowledge and Self-Confidence, and Knowledge Application and Problem-Solving Skills on the Students’ Learning Outcomes score. The results showed that the scores for Knowledge Application and Problem-Solving Skills were significant predictors of the Students’ Learning Outcomescore (β = 0.48, 95% C.I. [0.04, 0.92], p  = .04; β = 0.44, 95% C.I. [0.02, 0.85], p  = .039), while Team Skills and Self-Knowledge did not significantly predict the Students’ Learning Outcomescore (β = 0.07, 95% C.I. [-0.04, 0.19], p  = .22, β = 0.04, 95% C.I. [-0.07, 0.14], p  = .48). The overall model was significant F (4, 98) = 19.11, p  < .001, R 2  = 0.44, adjusted R 2  = 0.42).

Qualitative feedback

Nursing students’ reflections presented four themes: (a) integrating different learning areas to promote children’s health, (b) strengthening communication skills, (c) developing multiple problem-solving abilities, and (d) practicing enhances learning effectiveness. Table  4 explains how the themes were discovered through content analysis.

Integrating different learning areas to promote children’s health. Nursing students reported that interdisciplinary learning allowed them to gain more insight into therapeutic play and differentiate between game characteristics in nursing and early childhood care. Exposure to different fields helped them expand their thinking and move beyond designing games solely based on the concept of disease. They expressed the intent to consider child development and living environments when providing health-promoting care for children.

The faculties will provide us with more channels for reference, help us understand the use of games by the Department of Nursing and the Department of Childcare and Education, and teach the natural coping methods used in children’s lives. (S4)

Strengthening communication skills. The nursing students applied their undergraduate knowledge to design game content that effectively communicated with children. They developed skills to communicate with children about topics beyond health, such as discussing their favorite animals or characters. They also learned to use lively verbal expressions and body language to encourage children to participate in therapeutic play and develop an interest in learning about health issues.

Entering kindergarten this time gave me a vastly distinct experience. I’ve learned a lot from making party flute toys with these kids, from how to chat with them, make them pay attention to me, and use the gesture “give me five” to encourage them to answer questions. This time, it made me aware that I should let the children speak generously and that I can encourage them with such simple gestures. (S56)

Developing multiple problem-solving abilities. The nursing students mentioned that integration of interdisciplinary learning allowed them to anticipate the health needs of the subject; collaborate to develop appropriate materials; and deliver therapeutic play through role-playing, simulation activities, and trial teaching. They applied therapeutic play to enhance children’s rehabilitation post disease and address motor and social development issues. The students also acquired time management and emotional regulation skills, thereby improving their critical thinking ability during interactions with children.

We gradually understand how to face children in addition to understanding what they want, how to let children know the concept of health in the game…children playing with toys with their hands can also train their small muscles to work. … In the process, we have some areas that are worth improving, such as time control and being a little bit overwhelmed when the children do not want to play color-sorting games. This experience taught us how to handle children’s refusal to participate in activities. (S62)

Practicing enhances learning effectiveness. The students indicated that teaching should not only introduce professional knowledge but integrate it with the practical aspect. When they completed the work, they felt a sense of accomplishment. The students served children in the field, saw their smiles, and received their feedback. These activities enabled the students to affirm themselves and understand the meaning of learning. Additionally, they stated that they received assistance and comments from practitioners, which made them realize that knowledge is acquired through application.

The kids are happy to hear from and interact with us. We learned a lot in this short hour…and the feedback from our practitioners after the event was also helpful. They suggested that children should be guided more. Instead of doing it for them from the beginning, not with kids together…, it turns out that actually applying the knowledge is more valuable than listening to textbook theory all the time! (S69)

This study found that integration of interdisciplinary learning improved student learning outcomes and healthcare-giving competence. The effectiveness of student learning influenced their capacity to offer social services to children, thus confirming Hypotheses 1–3.

The findings of the “teachers’ instructional input” scale indicated that students recognized the effectiveness of the integrated course teaching approach employed by their faculties to assist them in integrating multidisciplinary thinking. Furthermore, consistent with findings from other studies [ 32 ], our results show that positive teacher-student interactions enhance student participation, critical thinking, and teamwork in interdisciplinary learning, ultimately improving learning outcomes.

The “students’ learning outcome” revealed that the integration of interdisciplinary learning could improve students’ professional knowledge, which was consistent with the findings of Liao and Wang [ 20 ] and Liu [ 33 ]. Knowledge is enhanced when students can identify multiple facets of a problem, critique expertise framework, incorporate creative thinking, and develop innovative problem-solving skills [ 24 , 33 ]. Therefore, students can critique the limitations of therapeutic play and develop new health-promoting games such as those that promote child development and teach children about their emotions. Additionally, our findings showed that the integration of interdisciplinary learning can significantly enhance students’ communication, teamwork, theory-to-practice skills, and problem-solving abilities, essential for nursing practice. Regarding their attitude, qualitative and quantitative results indicated that students thought the content and practice of this course stimulated their interest in learning.

Based on the results from the ability subscale of the “students’ learning outcome”, we found that the post-test mean of nursing students reached 90.15%. Lin et al. [ 21 ], referencing related literature, categorized essential workplace competencies that university education should foster interpersonal communication, leadership skills, teamwork, and higher-order thinking (problem-solving, critical thinking, reasoning, and creativity). Consequently, the ability indicators defined in the learning outcome scale included self-directed learning, participation in discussions, teamwork, connecting theory with practice, problem-solving, and independent thinking.

Our study aligns with these findings, demonstrating that the interdisciplinary curriculum successfully enhanced these competencies among students. The significant improvement in the average post-test scores suggests that students were able to apply theoretical knowledge to practical scenarios more effectively, work collaboratively in teams, and engage in critical and creative thinking to solve complex problems. This comprehensive development is crucial for their future roles in healthcare, where such skills are indispensable.

Moreover, the course’s structure, which integrated perspectives from childcare and nursing education, provided a holistic approach to learning. This approach enabled students to see the interconnectedness of different disciplines and appreciate the value of a multifaceted educational experience. The positive correlation between improved learning outcomes and the integration of interdisciplinary learning approach underscores the effectiveness of this method in fostering a well-rounded skill set in students, preparing them for the diverse challenges they will face in their professional careers.

The findings of social service effectiveness were consistent with those of Chao and Yang [ 33 ]. Incorporating social service into the integration of interdisciplinary learning enhances students’ application of knowledge, proficiency in skills, and development of positive attitudes. Furthermore, it improves their communication and problem-solving abilities, and their awareness of social responsibility toward children. The results of the multiple regression analyses further confirmed that interdisciplinary instruction enhances students’ knowledge application and problem-solving skills, which, in turn, can positively impact their learning outcomes. The qualitative data showed that students communicated with faculties and experts in the Department of Childcare and Education and learned how to implement healthcare for a child. Students engaged with children using children’s natural verbal and non-verbal physical expressions to motivate their focus and participation. The students learned to incorporate play elements into a storybook or use body-action language to encourage less confident children to participate in activities together and allow children to assert their abilities. Xiao et al. [ 12 ] found that storytellers used eye contact, gestures, voice modulation, and questioning to stimulate children’s emotional engagement and cooperation. However, the data indicated that “citizenship and social responsibility” did not improve, which was inconsistent with the findings of Chao and Yang [ 34 ]. Some students felt uncertain about their ability to serve independently owing to a gap between their imagination and practical application. Nevertheless, there was a positive correlation between students’ learning outcomes and citizenship and social responsibility. Integration of interdisciplinary learning can enhance students’ identification with citizenship and social responsibility, thereby enhancing their learning and practical application skills.

Regarding problem-solving, nursing students often use therapeutic play in disease treatment. However, using therapeutic play to promote children’s emotional expression and motor development, among other health issues, is a challenging task for them. Some researches emphasized that students learn through the interdisciplinary integration of information and experiences [ 17 , 19 , 24 ]. This helps nursing students solve complex problems using critical thinking and make decisions by applying their worldviews [ 17 , 24 ]. Teaching and practical activities by early childhood education professors enable them to understand the importance of making toys with children, grasp the health needs of service recipients, and aid children’s gross and fine motor development. Specifically, it allows them to fully focus on children’s developmental status beyond just disease observation. Therefore, through integration of interdisciplinary learning, nursing students can play a greater role, particularly by using therapeutic play to promote children’s emotional expression and motor development.

We also found that the cross-cultural competence outcomes of integration of interdisciplinary learning for students were similar to those reported by Widmer et al. [ 35 ]. From a sociocultural perspective, diverse disciplines have unique cultural backgrounds that influence how individuals think and behave [ 35 ]. Through cultural exchange, nursing students learned how preschool faculties guide children in learning health issues rather than merely impart knowledge. They believed that children should be encouraged to speak more and that educators should learn how to provide support and guidance in teaching.

Through on-site participation, the students re-examined the approach used by the Department of Childcare and Education when communicating with children. The interactions with children also prompted them to reflect on themselves and improve their knowledge and abilities.

Limitations

This study assessed student learning outcomes in interdisciplinary education, revealing significant improvements in it. However, several limitations should be noted. First, the quantitative measurement relied on self-reported scores, which may not fully capture knowledge gained across domains. To address this, qualitative reflections from students were collected, which provided deeper insights into the effects of the integrated curriculum. Furthermore, the study’s use of a purposive sample restricts the generalizability of findings to the specific student population. Nevertheless, the research demonstrated some degree of generalizability as it presented qualitative results aligned with participants’ experiences [ 36 ]. Second, the low number of male nursing students (13.6%) limits the generalization of findings to only female students. Further research should include more male students to determine gender differences. Third, time and manpower constraints prevented the student group from interacting with children in both kindergarten and hospital playrooms simultaneously. However, students shared their experiences and learned from each other through reporting and reflection [ 34 ]. Lastly, the integration of interdisciplinary learning course was taught only to nursing students by the faculties from the Department of Nursing and the Department of Childcare and Education at Northern Taiwan University. Future research could involve students from both departments to explore the effects of interdisciplinary learning to facilitate peer-to-peer learning.

The study found that integration of interdisciplinary learning can enhance students’ learning outcomes, leading to improvements in their knowledge, abilities, and attitudes in healthcare, particularly in therapeutic play. This includes enhanced communication, knowledge application, and problem-solving abilities. The Department of Childcare and Education provides nursing students with valuable perspectives and strategies that allow them to view therapeutic play as extending beyond the treatment of illnesses. It expands their instructional abilities and empowers them to create games that better cater to children’s daily lives, thereby improving the overall health of the children.

Data availability

The datasets generated and analysed during the current study are not publicly available due by Chang Gung Medical Foundation Institutional Review Board (Approval no. 201801939B0) agreement because of case protection but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

World Health Organization. World failing to provide children with a healthy life and a climate fit for their future: WHO-UNICEF-Lancet. 2020. https://www.who.int/news/item/19-02-2020-world-failing-to-provide-children-with-a-healthy-life-and-a-climate-fit-for-their-future-who-unicef-lancet . Last accessed on 7/12/2023.

Bally JMG, Spurr S, Hyslop S, Hodgson-Viden H, McNair ED. Using an interprofessional competency framework to enhance collaborative pediatric nursing education and practice. BMC Nurs. 2022;21:147.

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Straub C, Heinzmann A, Krueger M, Bode SFN. Nursing staff’s and physicians’ acquisition of competences and attitudes to interprofessional education and interprofessional collaboration in pediatrics. BMC Med Educ. 2020;20:213.

Propello. Interdisciplinary teaching: the why, what, and how. 2022. https://propello.com/blog/interdisciplinary-teaching . Last accessed on 7/18/2024.

Times Higher Education. How higher education can promote interdisciplinary science and enhance impact. 2023. https://www.timeshighereducation.com/campus/how-higher-education-can-promote-interdisciplinary-science-and-enhance-impact . Last accessed on 7/19/2024.

American University. Interdisciplinary Education: An Overview. 2023. https://soeonline.American.edu/blog/interdisciplinary-education/ . Last accessed on 7/19/2024.

Fernández-Morante C, Fernández-de-la-Iglesia J-d-C, Cebreiro B, Latorre-Ruiz E. ATS-STEM: global teaching methodology to improve competences of secondary education students. Sustainability. 2022;14:6986.

Article   Google Scholar  

Yayan EH, Zengin M, Düken ME, Suna Dağ Y. Reducing children’s pain and parents’ anxiety in the postoperative period: a therapeutic model in Turkish sample. J Pediatr Nurs. 2020;51:e33–8.

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Godino-Iáñez MJ, Martos-Cabrera MB, Suleiman-Martos N, Gómez-Urquiza JL, Vargas-Román K, Membrive-Jiménez MJ, et al. Play therapy as an intervention in hospitalized children: a systematic review. Healthc (Basel). 2020;8:239.

Google Scholar  

Lo KW, Yang BH. Development and learning efficacy of a simulation rubric in childhood pneumonia for nursing students: a mixed methods study. Nurse Educ Today. 2022;119:105544.

Zengin M, Yayan EH, Düken ME. The effects of a therapeutic play/play therapy program on the fear and anxiety levels of hospitalized children after liver transplantation. J Perianesth Nurs. 2021;36:81–5.

Xiao M, Amzah F, Rong W. Experience of beauty: valuing emotional engagement and collaboration in teacher-child storytelling activities. IJLTER. 2023;22:165–87.

Schijf JE, van der Werf GPC, Jansen EPWA. Measuring interdisciplinary understanding in higher education. Eur J High Educ. 2022:1–19.

Liu HY. Inter-professional nursing education and the roles of swift trust, interaction behaviors, and creativity: a cross-sectional questionnaire survey. Nurse Educ Today. 2020;95:104598.

Jin J, Hwang K-E, Kim I. A study on the constructivism learning method for BIM/IPD collaboration education. Appl Sci. 2020;10:5169.

Article   CAS   Google Scholar  

Van den Beemt A, MacLeod M, Van der Veen J, Van de Ven A, Van Baalen S, Klaassen R, et al. Interdisciplinary engineering education: a review of vision, teaching, and support. J Eng Educ. 2020;109:508–55.

Tripp B, Shortlidge EE. A framework to guide undergraduate education in interdisciplinary science. CBE Life Sci Educ. 2019;18:es3.

Geist MJ, Sanders R, Harris K, Arce-Trigatti A, Hitchcock-Cass C. Clinical immersion: an approach for fostering cross-disciplinary communication and innovation in nursing and engineering students. Nurse Educ. 2019;44:69–73.

Liu HY, Hsu DY, Han HM, Wang IT, Chen NH, Han CY, et al. Effectiveness of interdisciplinary teaching on creativity: a quasi-experimental study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19:5875.

Liao HC, Wang YH. Storytelling in medical education: narrative medicine as a resource for interdisciplinary collaboration. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2020;17.

Lin CY, Liu PY, Kao TC. Developing a student-learning-outcome-based instructional evaluation scale for higher education and examining the efficiency of course implementation via the scale. Curriculum Instruction Q. 2015;18:107–35.

Chao K, Liu L, Ma HKM, Liu H. The development of service learning effectiveness questionnaire and its reliability and validity. J Service Learn Social Connectivity. 2018;1:19–38.

Sharma S, Mudgal S, Thakur K, Gaur R. How to calculate sample size for observational and experiential nursing research studies? Natl J Physiol Pharm Pharmacol. 2019.

Ellingsen P, Tonholm T, Johansen FR, Andersson G. Learning from problem-based projects in cross-disciplinary student teams. Educ Sci. 2021;11:259.

Johnson JE, Sevimli-Celik S, Al-Mansour MA, Tunçdemir TBA, Dong PI. Play in early childhood education. Handbook of research on the education of young children. Routledge; 2019. pp. 165–75.

Ginsburg KR, American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Communications; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health. The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds. Pediatrics. 2007;119:182–91.

Liu MC, Chou FH. Play effects on hospitalized children with acute respiratory infection: an experimental design study. Biol Res Nurs. 2021;23:430–41.

Chao KY, Liu LM, Ma CHK, Liu HY. Developing and validating the service-learning outcome questionnaire. J Serv Learn Soc Engagem. 2018;1:19–38.

Lindgren BM, Lundman B, Graneheim UH. Abstraction and interpretation during the qualitative content analysis process. Int J Nurs Stud. 2020;108:103632.

Lincoln YS, Guba EG. Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hill: CA: Sage; 1985.

Book   Google Scholar  

Creswell JW, Clark VLP. Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage; 2017.

D’Souza MS, Nikku BR, Field C. Interdisciplinary teaching practices: reflections from a teaching triangle. J Nurs Educ Pract. 2021;11.

Liu HY. The relationship between swift trust and interaction behaviors on interdisciplinary and non-interdisciplinary teams in nursing education. Nurse Educ Pract. 2021;51:102977.

Chao KY, Yang BH. Integration of a service-learning component into a course on nursing care for children with developmental disorders: a mixed-methods study. Nurse Educ Today. 2022;113:105364.

Widmer D, Ouvrard P, Vaucher C, Guinchard B, Bhattacharya K, Bhattacharya RK, et al. Thinking rural health in Santal community in West Bengal: an interprofessional bottom-up approach to rural health. J Res Nurs. 2020;25:523–37.

Sebele-Mpofu FY. Saturation controversy in qualitative research: complexities and underlying assumptions. Literature Rev Cogent Soc Sci. 2020;6:1838706.

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors appreciate all the participants for providing their time and data.

This work was supported by the Ministry of Education [grant number PSK1080241, 2019]. The funder had no role in study design; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; in the writing of the report; and in the decision to submit the article for publication.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Nursing, Chang Gung University of Science and Technology, No. 261, Wenhua 1st Road, Guishan District, Taoyuan, 33303, Taiwan (R.O.C.)

Bao-Huan Yang, Kao-Wen Lo, Yuh-Shiow Li & Kuo-Yu Chao

Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan

Bao-Huan Yang

Department of Nursing, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan (R.O.C.)

Yuh-Shiow Li

Division of Colon and Rectal Surgery, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan

Kuo-Yu Chao

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

BY Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Data curation, Writing- Original draft preparation, Visualization, Investigation, Supervision, Writing- Reviewing & Editing. KL Software, Validation, Writing- Reviewing & Editing. YL Software, Validation, Writing- Reviewing & Editing. KC Software, Validation, Writing- Reviewing & Editing. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kuo-Yu Chao .

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate.

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Chang Gung Medical Foundation Institutional Review Board (Approval no. 201801939B0). This study is conducted anonymously, and this course is a teaching activity that administrative units must implement, and no consent is required which approved by Chang Gung Medical Foundation IRB.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary Material 1

Rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Yang, BH., Lo, KW., Li, YS. et al. Effects of integration interdisciplinary learning on student learning outcomes and healthcare-giving competence: a mixed methods study. BMC Nurs 23 , 583 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02260-w

Download citation

Received : 31 July 2023

Accepted : 13 August 2024

Published : 23 August 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-024-02260-w

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Nursing students

BMC Nursing

ISSN: 1472-6955

• General enquiries: [email protected]