primary homework help julius caesar

From around 750 BC to 12 BC, the Celts were the most powerful people in central and northern Europe. There were many groups (tribes) of Celts, speaking a vaguely common language.

The word Celt comes from the Greek word, , which means barbarians and is properly pronounced as "Kelt".

No-one called the people living in Britain during the Iron Age, Celts until the eighteenth century. In fact the Romans called these people , not Celts. The name Celts is a 'modern' name and is used to collectively describe all the many tribes of people living during the Iron Age.

The Iron Age Celts lived here 750 years before Jesus was born. The Iron Age ended in AD43 (43 years after Jesus was born) when the Romans invaded Britain.

The period of time in Britain immediately before the Roman period is known as the . The name 'Iron Age' comes from the discovery of a new metal called iron. The Celts found out how to make iron tools and weapons.

Before the Iron Age the only metal used in Britain to make tools was bronze, which is an alloy of copper and tin (hence the Bronze Age).

The Celts lived across most of Europe during the Iron Age.

Several hundred years before Julius Caesar, they occupied many parts of central and western Europe, especially what are now Austria, Switzerland, southern France and Spain. Over several years, in wave after wave, they spread outwards, taking over France and Belgium, and crossing to Britain.

People visiting Britain wrote of their impressions of the people and things they saw. Many of these reports are biased.

Much of what Caesar wrote about has since been proved wrong. First, we know that, early Britons did sow corn. Their ancestors had been farming for hundreds of years. Second, they weren't clad in skins. The Bronze Age introduced sewing implements that made it possible to tailor clothing. Third, not every Britain covered themselves in woad.

You can read more reports on our other Celt pages using the links on the left handside of this page.

©Copyright Mandy Barrow 2013 primaryhomeworkhelp.com

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ancient Rome

The ancient Romans developed the alphabet in which English is written.

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Introduction

When the ancient Greeks were reaching the height of their glory, the power of Rome, to the west, was slowly rising. The genius of the Greeks lay in art, literature, science, and philosophy. The Romans were best in warfare, engineering, and government.

The ancient Roman state was centered on the city of Rome , which is now part of Italy . In its early years, Rome was a small town ruled by kings. It later grew into a large, powerful, and long-lived state. The Roman Republic was founded in 509 bc and lasted for hundreds of years. In 27 bc the republic was replaced by the mighty Roman Empire, one of the most successful empires in history. The western part of the empire did not fall until the 5th century ad . Thereafter the eastern part continued on as the Byzantine Empire .

Rome rose to power gradually, with no set plan for world conquest. The Romans fought many wars and enslaved many people. By the time of the early empire, most of the Mediterranean world was unified and at peace under Roman rule. The empire’s vast territory ultimately included England, all of continental Europe west of the Rhine River and south of the Danube River, most of Asia west of the Euphrates River, northern Africa, and the islands of the Mediterranean.

The lasting effects of Roman rule in Europe can be seen in the widespread use of the Romance languages , including Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Romanian. All these languages evolved from Latin, the language of the Romans. The Western alphabet of 26 letters and the calendar of 12 months and 365.25 days are only two simple examples of the cultural legacy that Rome left to Western civilization. Another example is Roman law, which has affected the development of legal systems in most of the Western world as well as in parts of the East. It forms the basis for the modern law codes of most countries of continental Europe and systems based on them elsewhere. (For more information on various accomplishments of ancient Rome, see law, “Development of Positive Law” ; Latin literature ; Greek and Roman art ; technology, “Greek and Roman technology” ; science, “The Roman Empire” ; aqueduct ; Galen ; Ptolemy ; Hypatia ; Cicero ; Virgil ; Horace ; Ovid ; Livy ; Seneca the Younger ; Tacitus ; Augustine of Hippo .)

Rome, the City of the Seven Hills

Halfway down the Italian peninsula, on the west coast, is a small river called the Tiber . The coastal plain south of the river was known as Latium in ancient times, after the people who lived there—the Latins. These people were shepherds and farmers.

In the hill country to the west lived the Sabines, distant kinsmen of the Latins. They had moved into the peninsula from central Europe before 1000 bc and had vanquished the original inhabitants.

On the left bank of the Tiber River rise seven low hills. At this point the river is shallow and easy to cross. Latin merchants built a village on one of the hills—called the Palatine—in order to trade with the wealthy Etruscans , who lived north of the river. Settlements were later built on the other hills also. The towns on the seven hills finally joined to make one city, Rome.

The Kings of Early Rome

The early Romans kept no written records. Their history is so mixed with fables and myths that historians have difficulty distinguishing truth from fiction. There are only two existing works that give the continuous early history of Rome. Both of these works were written long after the events they tell of, and neither is complete. They are the histories of Livy and the Roman Antiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnassus. These men used inaccurate literary works for their information about early Rome.

The old legends say that Romulus and Remus founded the city in 753 bc when the settlements on the seven hills were united. This date is probably too late for the actual founding of the city. Romulus and Remus were mythical, but there is some evidence that the kings who are said to have followed them actually existed.

Legend says that Numa Pompilius succeeded Romulus. He is described as a wise and pious ruler. One of his accomplishments is supposed to have been the adding of two months to the 10-month calendar.

Under his successor, Tullus Hostilius, the Romans conquered Alba Longa, the religious center of the Latin people. There is a legend that Tullus was killed by lightning when he was “meddling” with the weather. During the reign of Ancus Marcius, the next king, a number of troublesome Latin cities were conquered, and their inhabitants were brought to Rome. Ancus Marcius is said to have built Rome’s seaport Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber.

The Etruscan Conquest

Shortly before 600 bc Rome was conquered by several Etruscan princes from across the Tiber River. Dating from this period of time information about Roman history is slightly more reliable, though it is still mixed with myth and legend.

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the first of the Etruscan kings, drained the city’s marshes. He improved the Forum, which was the commercial and political center of the town. He also founded a temple to Jupiter and carried on many wars with neighboring people.

Under Servius Tullius, the second Etruscan king, a treaty was made with the Latin cities that acknowledged Rome as the head of all Latium. Early historians said that Servius Tullius enlarged the city and built a wall around all seven hills.

The last of the kings of Rome, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (Tarquin), was a tyrant who opposed the people. He scorned religion. Tradition says, however, that he was persuaded to buy the famous Sibylline Books that thereafter served as a guide for Rome in times of trouble ( see sibyl ).

Under the rule of the Etruscans, Rome grew in importance and power. Great temples and impressive public works were constructed. The most notable of these public works is the huge sewer Cloaca Maxima, which is still in use. Trade prospered, and by the end of the 6th century bc Rome had become the largest and richest city in what is now Italy.

The Roman Republic

The latin aristocracy revolts.

In spite of Rome’s progress and development, the old Latin aristocracy resented the Etruscan kings. Lucius Junius Brutus is said to have led a rebellion of the aristocracy against Tarquin about 509 bc . The Etruscans were expelled from the city, and Rome became a republic . Soon afterward the Etruscans were driven from the rest of Latium as well.

From that time the title of king was hateful to the Roman people. Even the most despotic rulers in the later days of the Roman Empire did not dare to call themselves kings.

According to legend, four times Tarquin attempted to regain his power. First, he enlisted the aid of Brutus’s two sons. When Brutus discovered their treachery, the stern old father, true to the ancient Roman ideal of duty, condemned them both to death. Second, the men of two Etruscan cities, Veii and Tarquinii, marched on Rome to force Tarquin’s restoration. Brutus was slain in the fight, but the Romans won the battle. A third attempt to regain power was initiated by Lars Porsena, an Etruscan prince, who seized a high place across the Tiber from Rome. The city was saved only by the heroism of Horatius Cocles and two companions. They are said to have held off the Etruscan army while the Romans destroyed the bridge. Tarquin finally induced his son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius, chief of all the Latins, to lead a revolt. In the famous battle of Lake Regillus, the Latins were crushed. According to legend, the Romans were aided in this battle by the twin deities Castor and Pollux.

Government of the Republic

The young Roman republic now set out on its long career of almost constant warfare and conquest. At the time it did not seem destined to become a major world power. It was only a tiny city-state —a city that, together with the surrounding countryside, formed an independent nation. In this respect Rome was much like the city-states that were flourishing at the same time in Greece . Rome’s area was less than 400 square miles (1,035 square kilometers), and Rome’s population was perhaps 150,000.

The government was in the hands of the wealthy and aristocratic citizens, called the patricians. They were supposed to be descendants of the three original tribes of Rome. The common citizens were called the plebs or plebeians. At first they had little to do with governing. Bit by bit, however, they tore down the barrier that separated the two social orders. The internal history of the republic for the next three centuries is largely the story of how the plebeians wrested reform after reform from the patricians.

The Early Republic

The government of the republic included various officials called magistrates. The two highest magistrates were known as consuls. Ruling power was divided between the two consuls, who had replaced the king as Rome’s head of state. Unlike kings, they were elected and held office for only one year. According to traditional accounts, the consuls of the early republic were all patricians. The consuls were primarily generals whose task it was to lead Rome’s armies in war. Having two consuls helped ensure that neither would have too much power, since each consul could veto the other’s decisions. In times of military emergency, when unity of command was sometimes necessary, Rome temporarily appointed a dictator in place of the consuls. A dictator could not hold supreme military command for longer than six months.

The consuls were chosen by a body called the centuriate assembly ( comitia centuriata ). This assembly was military in nature. It voted on war and peace and elected all the magistrates who exercised military power. Both patricians and plebeians served on the centuriate assembly. However, the assembly was set up so that the votes of the patricians counted for much more than those of the far more numerous plebeians.

The Roman Senate was the most important political body. It consisted of patricians chosen by the consuls (and later by other magistrates). The number of senators varied; in the middle years of the republic, there were about 300. The senators were appointed for life. The magistrates had to submit all important measures to the Senate, which in theory was a purely advisory body. It became the custom, however, for the Senate to be composed of former magistrates. Given the collective experience and prestige of its members, any advice the Senate gave was almost certain to be accepted. No magistrate would dare challenge such a powerful body unless he were prepared to back up his act by force of arms. The Senate issued advisory decrees on home and foreign policy, on legislation, and on financial and religious questions.

The plebeians were thus shut out from office and political power by their wealthy fellow citizens. True, they were protected from the worst dangers of arbitrary power by the Lex Valeria (Valerian Law) passed in 509 bc . This law provided that whenever the life or rights of any citizen were at stake, he could appeal from the consuls to the centuriate assembly. However, the plebeians suffered from unjust debt laws and from unfair distribution of territory won by conquest.

A Whole Nation Goes on Strike—The Conflict of the Orders

To right their wrongs the plebeians went on what today would be called a general strike. In 494 bc they marched out of Rome in a body and threatened to make a new city. This strike terrified the patricians. They agreed to cancel all debts and to release people who were in prison for debt. Furthermore, the Senate was forced to allow the plebeians to have their own officials, called tribunes. The tribunes had the right to veto the act of any magistrate that was unjust to any citizen.

From this beginning the plebeians went on to gain other rights. They soon won recognition for an assembly of their own, the plebeian assembly ( concilium plebis ). It was initially a relatively small and informal advisory assembly.

At the insistence of the plebeians, Rome received its first written law code in 451–50 bc . This was an important advance for the plebeians, who could now find out what the laws were. Written laws also helped prevent abuses of power, as patrician magistrates could no longer change the laws at will against plebeians. The laws were inscribed upon 12 bronze tablets and publicly displayed in the Forum. They covered such matters as legal procedure, family law, and property rights. The so-called Law of the Twelve Tables formed the basis of all subsequent Roman private law—law concerned with individuals, relationships, and property.

The plebeians achieved further gains in Rome. They won the right to marry patricians in 445 bc . Plebeians also began to win appointment or election to public offices, one after another. The chief of these offices, which were established to relieve the consuls of the growing burdens of administration, included the quaestors, or treasurers. The censors kept the lists of the citizens, assessed taxes, and supervised public morals. The praetors were judges. Admission to these public offices carried with it admission to the Senate, since vacancies were filled from those who had last served in public office. In 367 bc it was decided that one of the two consuls had to be a plebeian.

The growing power of the plebeians was marked by the gradual rise of a new voting body, the tribal assembly ( comitia tributa ), in which one man’s vote counted as much as another’s. This assembly developed from the plebeian assembly, which still continued to meet. All adult male Roman citizens, patricians and plebeians alike, could participate in the tribal assembly. It was considered an important civic duty for adult male citizens to actively take part in the government (as well as to serve in the military to defend the republic). In 287 bc a law known as the Lex Hortensia made the acts of the plebeian assembly binding on all the people (as were the acts of the other assemblies). From then on, the plebeian assembly and the tribal assembly made most of the laws of the republic.

The administration of the Roman Republic thus developed into a tripartite, or three-part, government, with the different parts sharing power. The three main branches of government were the consuls, the Senate, and the assemblies. A system of checks and balances helped prevent any one part of the government from becoming too powerful. For example, the tribunes, who were elected by the plebeian assembly, could veto any act of the consuls, who were elected by the Senate. The principle of checks and balances has been incorporated into many modern constitutional governments, such as that of the United States .

The Greek historian Polybius greatly admired the Roman Republic’s mixed constitution , noting that each of the branches had elements of a different form of government. The consuls represented monarchy (though the consuls were elected and held less power than kings). The Senate represented aristocracy. The assemblies represented democracy .

The constitution of the Roman Republic was not a specific written document like that of the United States . Rather, the Roman constitution developed over a long period of time and included many unwritten practices as well as a variety of written laws.

Struggles Between Rich and Poor

Side by side with the struggle for political power was the economic struggle between rich and poor. The wealthy landowners continued to increase their estates, taking the best of the lands and increasing their herds until they monopolized the public pasture. They continued the practice of lending money at ruinous interest to the small proprietors, reducing them to slavery when they could not pay. Moreover, the population of Rome was increasing too fast, and the soil was becoming poorer because of the primitive farming methods. The burden of constant warfare fell most heavily on the plebeians, who had to leave their little farms to fight the state’s battles. Gradually, however, reforms were forced through, chief of which were the Licinian laws of 367 bc . These again revised the debt laws, limited holdings to 300 acres, and compelled the large landowners to employ a certain proportion of free laborers.

Expansion in Italy

While these important changes were taking place at home, the little city-state had been gradually extending its power. Compelled at first to fight for its very existence against powerful neighbors, Rome gradually fought its way to the leadership of the Italian peoples. This paved the way for the later conquest of the Mediterranean world.

The most powerful of Rome’s early foes had been the Etruscans . With their greater numbers and superior civilization, the Etruscans might have defeated Rome. Their fleet, however, was destroyed in a war with the Greek city of Syracuse in Italy (474 bc ).

The Romans suffered constant pressure from the Gauls to the north. Toward the end of the 5th century, the Gauls swarmed into the Po Valley, in the northern part of the Italian peninsula, and laid waste to the Etruscan cities of the north. Thus aided, the Romans had been able (396 bc ) to take, after a 10 years’ siege, the Etruscan stronghold of Veii, which was eight miles (13 kilometers) from Rome.

The Gauls Sack Rome

In its conflicts with the Gauls and with neighboring Italic tribes (chiefly the Aequians and Volscians), Rome was supported by the other Latin cities to the south. They were united under the name of the Latin League and had made a treaty with Rome for mutual defense. The victorious progress of Rome received a temporary setback in 390 bc when wandering Gauls advanced through the heart of Etruria, in the central part of the Italian peninsula. They laid waste the land as they went and captured and sacked Rome. Legend tells how the garrison on Rome’s Capitol Hill was aroused in the nick of time by the cackling of the sacred geese and repulsed the storming party. After a fruitless siege, the Gauls accepted a heavy ransom and returned to the valley of the Po.

Although Rome had been burned, the Etruscans had suffered far worse in the invasion and were so weakened that Rome was able to seize their southern possessions. In another century Rome conquered their whole territory.

Meanwhile the Latin League had become restive under the growing power and arrogance of its ally, Rome, and attempted to break away from Roman control. Rome won the two years’ war that followed (340–338 bc ). Some Latin towns were forced to become allies of Rome, others were given full Roman citizenship, and others partial citizenship (the “Latin right”).

Another strong foe of Rome in central Italy still to be reckoned with was the Samnites, a people also of Italic stock. Rome’s first conflict with this warlike people (343–341 bc ) had been interrupted by the Latin revolt. The truce then made was broken a few years later (326 bc ). A desperate struggle continued, with interruptions, until the decisive Battle of Sentinum (295 bc ) made Rome supreme over all central and northern Italy.

Only southern Italy, occupied by a disunited group of Greek city-states, remained independent. Its fate was not long delayed. Alarmed at the spread of Roman power, the Greek cities appealed to Pyrrhus , king of Epirus in Greece. He inflicted two telling defeats on the Roman army and then crossed to Sicily to aid the Greek cities there to fight for freedom from Carthage , a city of northern Africa. Encouraged by the arrival of a Carthaginian fleet, Rome renewed the struggle, and in 275 bc Rome defeated Pyrrhus in the Battle of Beneventum. One by one the Greek cities of southern Italy were taken, and Rome was ruler of all Italy.

Consolidating Roman Gains

The Roman genius was great. Nowhere was its skill shown better than in the development of the system that gradually welded the lands conquered by the Romans into a single nation, contented and unified. Rome could have exploited the conquered cities of Italy for its own interests. Instead it granted many of those cities the privileges of Roman citizenship , in full or in part. Most of these people were given the status of allies. They had self-government and the right to trade and intermarry in Rome. They did not, however, have the right to vote. The allies also had to provide Rome with military forces in wartime.

Furthermore, all Italy was dotted with colonies of Roman citizens. Most of the colonists retained their full civic rights. Much territory—nearly one-sixth of all Italy—was annexed and distributed among these Roman citizens. Thus, a common interest in the welfare of Rome spread throughout the Italian peninsula.

The Punic Wars

Two centuries of warfare had turned Rome into a nation of soldiers. Its only remaining rival in the western Mediterranean was the Phoenician colony of Carthage . Carthage was the region’s chief sea power, just as Rome was the chief land power. Carthaginian warships made the Mediterranean a closed sea. The Carthaginians sank the trading vessels of any other city that dared to bid for a share of the rich commerce of the Mediterranean region. Such lordly and insolent behavior was intolerable to the equally haughty pride of Rome.

A conflict for Mediterranean supremacy called the Punic Wars began in 264 bc . Warfare continued with interruptions until Carthage was finally destroyed in 146 bc . Two great military geniuses were among the leaders in these wars. Hannibal led the Carthaginian forces from about 220 to 200 bc , when he was defeated by the Roman commander Publius Cornelius Scipio. For this victory in northern Africa, the Roman commander became known as Scipio Africanus .

The courage and endurance of Rome were tested to the utmost in this long and disastrous series of wars. The war with Hannibal (the Second Punic War)—one historian said—was “a trial such as no people has ever gone through before or since, and survived.” The stern devotion to duty, which was the keynote of Roman character, triumphed in the end, however. After the Battle of Zama (202 bc ), Carthage was reduced to the position of a subject state. Fifty years later, in the Third Punic War, Rome again savagely attacked its defeated rival and razed the city of Carthage.

Conquering the Mediterranean World

Rome was now well launched on its way to dominating the Mediterranean area. One conquest led to another. Upper Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), Sicily, Spain, Macedonia, Greece, and Asia Minor (now in Turkey) were subdued and made Roman provinces. Intoxicated with their sudden rise to power, the new generation of statesmen departed from the wise policies of their great predecessors. They fought ruthlessly and ruined the countries they conquered. The prolonged wars of conquest created a great flood of captives. These prisoners of war were made slaves and were put to work farming, especially the cultivation of olives and grapes that created much of the state’s prosperity.

The newly acquired lands and diverse peoples populating them proved a challenge to govern effectively. The Romans stationed troops in each province, ready to exercise force if necessary. Most of the conquered lands were administered by appointed Roman governors (proconsuls), who had absolute power over all non-Roman citizens. Some of them ruled like despots and tried to amass in their one year of office wealth for a lifetime. The enormous taxes wrung from the subject peoples defrayed most of the expenses of the Roman state. The taxes also enriched the greedy collectors (publicans), who purchased the privilege of collecting them. Wealth poured into Rome from all over the world, and the ancient simplicity of Roman life gave way to luxury and pomp. Morals were undermined, and vice and corruption flourished.

The suddenly enriched officeholders acquired estates and bought up the little farms of the peasants. The peasants were poor and could not compete with the hordes of slaves who worked the great plantations. The streets of the capital were flooded with poverty-stricken people—ruined farmers, discharged soldiers, and idlers from all Italy. These people lived on state and private charity as well as on bribes that were given by office seekers.

Between the aristocracy of birth and wealth and the vast moneyless mob there was bitter hostility. War of class against class was bound to come. A few patriotic statesmen tried in vain to avert the dreadful climax. Two brothers came forward as champions of the people. They were Tiberius and Gaius Sempronius Gracchus, grandsons of Scipio Africanus. The brothers proposed laws to redistribute the public lands and to limit the powers of the corrupt and selfish Senate. Both men fell victim to their foes, Tiberius in 133 bc and Gaius 12 years later.

The Roman Empire

The collapse of the republic.

The death of Tiberius marked the beginning of a century of revolution and civil war that ended in the establishment of the Roman Empire. Social unrest led to a series of revolts. Ambitious politicians and generals competed for power and top military commands. Military conquests could bring great wealth and glory to the conqueror as well as the political support of the armies he commanded.

First of the popular military chiefs was Gaius Marius, who was ultimately elected consul seven times. He had become a national hero by putting down an insurrection in Africa. In 102–101 bc he almost destroyed a horde of Germanic tribes (the Cimbri and Teutones) who had defeated four Roman armies.

In the year 90 bc the Italian allies, who had long demanded full Roman citizenship, rose in revolt. This struggle, called the Social War, lasted two years and ended in the bestowal of citizenship.

Civil war broke out after Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla each sought command in a war in Asia Minor. Sulla was a patrician and an adherent of the conservative group in the Senate that wanted to keep power in the hands of the aristocracy. Marius belonged to a group that courted the support of the common people. The rivalry between Marius and Sulla led Sulla to march with his troops on Rome. For the first time, Rome was invaded by a Roman army. Sulla was given the command in Asia Minor, and as soon as he and his troops were safely out of the way, Marius in turn seized Rome with his army. Marius massacred many of the leaders of Sulla’s political group. On his victorious return in 82 bc , Sulla took a fearful revenge, slaughtering more than 5,000 of his opponents and confiscating their goods.

As “perpetual dictator” (81–79 bc ), Sulla carried out notable constitutional reforms in an attempt to strengthen the Roman Republic. With these reforms he intended mainly to reestablish the supremacy of the Senate in the Roman state. The aristocrats, however, were too corrupt and feeble to hold power.

The history of the remaining years of the republic is told in biographies of the great adventurers who now made themselves masters of the torn and disrupted state. They sometimes united to make their positions secure and sometimes waged savage civil warfare.

In 73–71 bc a gladiator named Spartacus led an army of runaway slaves in a war against Rome. Their revolt was crushed by armies under Marcus Licinius Crassus. However, Crassus’s rival Pompey managed to take the credit for this success. Crassus and Pompey both served as consul in 70 bc .

The Roman statesman and orator Marcus Tullius Cicero was elected consul in 63 bc . Cicero tried in vain to uphold the principles of the republic during the civil wars.

The only thing that saved the vast edifice of Roman power from crashing to final destruction was the emergence of two brilliant statesmen, Gaius Julius Caesar and his great-nephew Octavian (Augustus) . Scrapping the old republican framework, except in outward form, they remolded the tottering structure into an empire . All power was gradually concentrated in the hands of a single ruler, who was backed by the might of the Roman legions (units of soldiers).

The First Triumvirate and Julius Caesar

Forming an alliance with both the popular general Pompey and the wealthy Crassus, Julius Caesar was elected consul in 60 bc . Unofficially, the three formed what is now called the First Triumvirate (a triumvirate being a ruling board of three officials). After Caesar’s term as consul ended, he became governor of two provinces in Gaul (now part of France ). In the Gallic Wars of 58–50 bc , Caesar ruthlessly conquered the rest of Gaul and made raids into Germany and Britain, amassing great wealth for himself.

Meanwhile, the triumvirate had renewed their alliance, securing the consulship of 55 bc for Pompey and Crassus and further lucrative military posts for Caesar and Crassus. After Crassus’s death in 53 bc , Pompey and Caesar had a falling out and began competing for power. Pompey sided with the conservative nobles who were Caesar’s enemies in the Senate. Rome descended into a state of anarchy, and the Senate called on Pompey to restore order. He was named sole consul in 52 bc .

Conservatives in the Senate began to grow wary of Caesar’s increasing power. In 50 bc the Senate instructed Caesar to give up his military command. When the Senate would not order Pompey to give up his command at the same time, Caesar defied the Senate. He provoked civil war in 49 bc by crossing the little river Rubicon between Gaul and Italy with his army, which amounted to an act of war against Rome. Caesar pursued Pompey, who fled east with his troops. Caesar defeated Pompey in 48 bc . After following Pompey to Egypt, Caesar became the lover of Cleopatra , queen of Egypt; he supported her rule militarily. Caesar defeated Pompey’s last supporters in 46–45 bc and returned to Rome.

Caesar was named dictator for life by the Romans. He was offered the crown but refused it, knowing the Romans’ dislike for kings. Caesar was in the midst of launching a series of political and social reforms when he was assassinated in the Senate House on March 15, 44 bc . He was killed by a group of about 60 senators led by Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus. The conspirators against Caesar included many of his political enemies as well as former friends—such as Brutus—who feared that under Caesar the republic was becoming like a monarchy.

The Second Triumvirate and Augustus

After Caesar’s assassination, a power struggle again ensued. After several battles, Rome was ruled by the triumvirate of Octavian (Caesar’s grand-nephew) and his chief rivals, Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. The three divided up control of the empire between them. It was not long, however, before Octavian stripped Lepidus of power and went to war against Antony in northern Africa. After Octavian’s victory at Actium in 31 bc , he was crowned Rome’s first emperor and was called Augustus. His reign, from 27 bc to ad 14, was distinguished by stability and peace.

Augustus established a form of government known as a principate, which combined some elements from the republic with the traditional powers of a monarchy . The Senate still functioned, though Augustus, as princeps, or first citizen, remained in control of the government. Under Augustus, Rome began to prosper once again, and the emperor came to be looked upon as a god. Thereafter, all good Roman emperors were worshipped as gods after death.

Two Centuries of Peace and Prosperity

The Roman state had endured a century of civil strife, which had also seen almost constant warfare abroad. After the establishment of the empire came two centuries of profound peace broken only by frontier warfare. This state of tranquility is known as the Roman Peace (Pax Romana). During this period, arts and literature were prized and fostered and civilization flourished. In the provinces responsible men held power. More and more the Mediterranean world came to resemble one great nation. Roman citizenship was extended to all free men throughout the vast empire, and Roman law was administered in every court.

Paved roads led from one end of Italy to the other and into what are now France and Germany. Fragments of Roman roads still exist even in faraway Britain, as well as Roman aqueducts and bridges in France and Roman wells in the Egyptian oases of the Sahara. Roman city planners achieved unprecedented standards of hygiene with their plumbing, sewage disposal, dams, and aqueducts. The Romans’ 50,000 miles (80,000 kilometers) of hard-surfaced highway made possible Roman conquest and administration. The Roman road system also made it easier for long-distance commerce to flourish, and trade helped to unify the empire. A stable currency aided economic growth.

There were signs, however, that the national character was decaying. The fundamental seriousness ( gravitas ) that had characterized the conduct of ancient Romans was gone. The old reverence for the family, for the state, and for the gods was diminished as well. Prosperity had brought corruption with it.

The rich amused themselves by giving splendid feasts. For a time the common people were satisfied with “bread and circuses”—that is, free bread and free shows—as the authorities attempted to divert their attention from the gap between their standard of living and that of the aristocracy. The middle class, which once had been the backbone of the nation, had almost disappeared. Slavery fueled the economy. In Roman society there were then only the rich and the very poor.

After the reign of Diocletian (284–305 ad ), the empire was under an absolute one-man rule. Society became stagnant—politically, industrially, and mentally.

The Jewish Revolts and the Rise of Christianity

In the 1st and 2nd centuries ad , conflicts had arisen between the state and Jews within the Roman Empire. Many Jews lived in Rome, and Jews were dispersed throughout the Mediterranean world, in many parts of the Roman Empire. Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, and Babylonia (now in Iraq) are each thought to have been home to more than a million Jews. Judaea, the native land of the Jews, in the region of Palestine , remained the center of Jewish religious and cultural life. The Romans took control of Palestine in 63 bc .

Under the Romans, the Jews were at first allowed to practice their religion freely. The Romans appointed Herod the Great , a practicing Jew of Arab origins, king of Judaea in 37 bc and later king of all of Palestine. Palestine prospered under Herod’s reign, during which he rebuilt the great Temple of Jerusalem and constructed a magnificent palace, fortresses, and many public buildings. After Herod’s death in 4 bc , Palestine was governed first by Herod’s descendants. It was later ruled directly by Roman financial agents called procurators, who ensured that taxes were paid to Rome.

Some Jews in Judaea appreciated the benefits of Roman rule in guaranteeing peace and order. Others resented being ruled by a foreign power and wanted to reestablish an independent Jewish state. Under the early procurators, clashes between small groups of Jews and Romans arose frequently. In later years corrupt administration and the Romans’ disrespect of Jewish religious sensibilities helped lead to a larger rebellion. The First Jewish Revolt broke out in Judaea in ad 66, during the reign of the emperor Nero . The Romans finally crushed the revolt in 70, capturing Jerusalem and destroying the Temple.

Skirmishes between Jews and Romans continued. In 115–117, during the reign of the emperor Trajan, Jews rebelled in Egypt, Cyrenaica (now in Libya), Cyprus, and Mesopotamia (now in Iraq). Another large war, the Second Jewish Revolt , occurred in Judaea in 132–135, after the emperor Hadrian had begun restricting some Jewish religious practices. This revolt was led by Bar Kokhba. After the Romans ruthlessly suppressed the rebellion, they made Jerusalem into a Roman colony and forbade Jews to enter the city.

Meanwhile, a new religion had arisen. Near the end of Herod’s reign, Jesus had been born in Judaea. He was put to death by crucifixion about ad 30 by order of Pontius Pilate, the province’s Roman governor. The followers of Jesus at first formed a small new sect of Judaism but later identified their faith as a separate religion, Christianity . St. Paul and other Christian missionaries preached their faith widely. The new religion began to spread, though relatively slowly, in the 1st and 2nd centuries. Converts were found throughout the Roman Empire but especially in the east, from Egypt to the Black Sea. The stability provided by the empire and its network of roads and communications may have aided Christianity’s growth.

Christians did not offer sacrifices to the Roman gods, whose favor the Romans believed brought success to the empire. Some Romans accused the Christians of disloyalty to the empire and of provoking the gods’ wrath. Mob violence broke out against Christians from time to time. Christians also sometimes suffered under official persecutions. In ad 64 a fire destroyed much of Rome; purportedly in order to escape blame, the emperor Nero had numerous Christians killed as scapegoats. Soon thereafter, the Romans made it a crime to practice Christianity, though the authorities usually left Christians alone unless they stirred up trouble.

Organized, empirewide violent persecutions of Christians occurred at moments of extreme crisis in the empire, such as during economic collapse and political chaos. The Christian church faced the worst treatment in the early 4th century under the coemperors Diocletian and Galerius. They ordered the destruction of the churches, the seizure of sacred books, the imprisonment of the clergy, and a death sentence for all those who refused to sacrifice to the Roman gods. Not long after, however, the emperor Constantine I converted to Christianity himself. In 313 he granted Christians full legal rights and ordered official toleration of all religions. With Constantine’s strong support, Christianity began its growth into a world religion. By the end of the 4th century, Christianity had become the official religion of the Roman Empire. ( See also martyr, “Christianity.” )

The Imperial History of Rome

Augustus was followed as emperor by his stepson Tiberius (ruled ad 14–37), who was a capable but unpopular ruler. Then came the unstable and cruel Caligula (37–41), whose life was ended by his own officers after he had reigned for only four years. Claudius (41–54) was not a strong ruler. His reign left its mark on the history of the empire, however, for his generals conquered the southern part of Britain. The infamous Nero (54–68) was the last ruler of the line of Augustus.

After Nero’s death there were struggles for the throne between rival military commanders, and civil war was threatened. With the triumph of Vespasian (69–79), however, the Roman government became stable. Vespasian was succeeded as emperor by his sons Titus (79–81) and Domitian (81–96), who conquered more of Britain. A brutal tyrant, Domitian was murdered for his cruelties.

Domitian was followed by the so-called Five Good Emperors, a line of five rulers who provided the empire with internal harmony and careful government. Nerva’s brief reign (96–98) was followed by that of the great conquering emperor Trajan (98–117), under whom the empire reached its greatest extent. The capable Hadrian (117–138) consolidated and improved the empire’s organization and fortified the frontiers. Parts of the great wall he built across northern Britain still stand. Hadrian was followed by Antoninus Pius (138–161) and Marcus Aurelius (161–180).

Decline and Fall

From 180 to 284, the Senate recognized 27 men as emperors. Supported by the Roman legions, many others laid claim to the title. The instability and succession of short terms was finally stopped by the emperor Diocletian (ruled 284–305), who restored efficient government to the empire after a period of near anarchy. Over the years, the Senate had progressively been deprived of its powers. Diocletian abolished the last of the Senate’s privileges, creating a kind of absolute monarchy. The Senate was now no more than the city council of Rome. Diocletian also took the first step toward dividing the empire: he ruled the East and turned over the rule of the West to an associate.

The city of Rome declined when the emperor Constantine I (312–326) moved his capital to the Greek city of Byzantium (now Istanbul , Turkey) on the Black Sea in 330. He renamed it Constantinople in his own honor.

The last of Constantine’s line, Theodosius I (379–395), was the last emperor to rule over a unified Roman Empire. The western part of the empire suffered from repeated invasions by Germanic tribes from the North. These are often called the barbarian invasions, because the Romans called the invaders (and other foreigners) “barbarians.” The West had grown weak compared with the East, where spices and other exports virtually guaranteed wealth and stability. When Theodosius died in 395, Rome split into Eastern and Western empires. The Eastern Empire, with its capital at Byzantium, was known as the Byzantine Empire . As its long history began, the Western Empire fell into weakness and decline. Invasions of the West continued, as Goths , Vandals , Franks , and other Germanic tribes swept in. The West was severely shaken in 410, when Visigoths sacked the city of Rome.

Romulus Augustulus, whose name combined the name of Rome’s legendary founder and that of its first emperor, was the last ruler of the Western Roman Empire. In 476 he was deposed by the Germanic leader Odoacer. The Roman Empire came to an end, and the Germanic kingdoms of the Middle Ages took its place. However, the Byzantine Empire lasted another 1,000 years. ( See also Middle Ages, “Fall of the Roman Empire.” )

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