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How to Write a First-Class Law Essay

Studying law at university entails lots of essay writing. This article takes you through the key steps to writing a top law essay.

Writing a law essay can be a challenging task. As a law student, you’ll be expected to analyse complex legal issues and apply legal principles to real-world scenarios. At the same time, you’ll need to be able to communicate your ideas clearly and persuasively. In this article, we’ll cover some top tips to guide you through the process of planning, researching, structuring and writing a first-class law essay with confidence. 

1. Start In Advance

Give yourself plenty of time to plan, research and write your law essay. Always aim to start your law essay as soon as you have the question. Leaving it until the last minute does not only create unnecessary stress, but it also leaves you insufficient time to write, reference and perfect your work.

2. Understand The Question

Do not begin until you fully comprehend the question. Take the time to read the question carefully and make sure that you understand what it’s asking you to do. Highlight key terms and annotate the question with definitions of key concepts and any questions that you have have. Think about how the question links back to what you’ve learned during your lectures or through your readings.

3. Conduct Thorough Research

Conducting thorough research around your topic is one of the most fundamental parts of the essay writing process. You should aim to use a range of relevant sources, such as cases, academic articles, books and any other legal materials. Ensure that the information you collect is taken from relevant, reliable and up to date sources. Use primary over secondary material as much as possible.

Avoid using outdated laws and obscure blog posts as sources of information. Always aim to choose authoritative sources from experts within the field, such as academics, politicians, lawyers and judges. Using high-quality and authoritative sources and demonstrating profound and critical insight into your topic are what will earn you top marks.

4. Write A Detailed Plan

Once you’ve done your research, it’s time to plan your essay. When writing your plan, you’ll need to create an outline that clearly identifies the main points that you wish to make throughout your article. Try to write down what you wish to achieve in each paragraph, what concepts you want to discuss and arguments you want to make.

Your outline should be organised in a clear, coherent and logical manner to ensure that the person grading your essay can follow your line of thought and arguments easily.  You may also wish to include headings and subheadings to structure your essay effectively This makes it easier when it comes to writing the essay as starting without a plan can get messy. The essay must answer the question and nothing but the question so ensure all of your points relate to it.

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5. Write A Compelling Introduction

A great introduction should, firstly, outline the research topic.  The introduction is one of the most crucial parts of the law essay as it sets the tone for the rest of the paper. It should capture the readers attention and provide the background context on the topic. Most importantly, it should state the thesis of your essay.

When writing your introduction, avoid simply repeating the given question. Secondly, create a road map for the reader, letting them know how the essay will approach the question. Your introduction must be concise. The main body of the essay is where you will go into detail.

6. Include A Strong Thesis Statement

Your thesis should clearly set out the argument you are going to be making throughout your essay and should normally go in the introduction. Your thesis should adopt a clear stance rather than being overly general or wishy-washy. To obtain the best grades, you’ll need to show a unique perspective based upon a critical analysis of the topic rather than adopting the most obvious point of view.

Once you’ve conducted your research and had a chance to reflect on your topic, ask yourself whether you can prove your argument within the given word count or whether you would need to adopt a more modest position for your paper. Always have a clear idea of what your thesis statement is before you begin writing the content of your essay. 

7. Present the Counter-argument

To demonstrate your deeper understanding of the topic, it’s important to show your ability to consider the counter-arguments and address them in a careful and reasoned manner. When presenting your counterarguments, aim to depict them in the best possible light, aiming to be fair and reasonable before moving on to your rebuttal. To ensure that your essay is convincing, you will need to have a strong rebuttal that explains why your argument is stronger and more persuasive. This will demonstrate your capacity for critical analysis, showing the reader that you have carefully considered differing perspectives before coming to a well-supported conclusion.

8. End With A Strong Conclusion

Your conclusion is your opportunity to summarise the key points made throughout your essay and to restate the thesis statement in a clear and concise manner.  Avoid simply repeating what has already been mentioned in the body of the essay. For top grades, you should use the conclusion as an opportunity to provide critical reflection and analysis on the topic. You may also wish to share any further insights or recommendations into alternative avenues to consider or implications for further research that could add value to the topic. 

9. Review The Content Of Your Essay

Make sure you factor in time to edit the content of your essay.  Once you’ve finished your first draft, come back to it the next day. Re-read your essay with a critical perspective. Do your arguments make sense? Do your paragraphs flow in a logical manner? You may also consider asking someone to read your paper and give you critical feedback. They may be able to add another perspective you haven’t considered or suggest another research paper that could add value to your essay. 

10. Proofread For Grammatical Mistakes

Once you’re happy with the content of your essay, the last step is to thoroughly proofread your essay for any grammatical errors. Ensure that you take time to ensure that there are no grammar, spelling or punctuation errors as these can be one of the easiest ways to lose marks. You can ask anyone to proofread your paper, as they would not necessarily need to have a legal background – just strong grammar and spelling skills! 

11. Check Submission Guidelines

Before submitting, ensure that your paper conforms with the style, referencing and presentation guidelines set out by your university. This includes the correct font, font size and line spacing as well as elements such as page numbers, table of content etc. Referencing is also incredibly important as you’ll need to make sure that you are following the correct referencing system chosen by your university. Check your university’s guidelines about what the word count is and whether you need to include your student identification number in your essay as well. Be thorough and don’t lose marks for minor reasons!

12. Use Legal Terms Accurately

Always make sure that you are using legal terms accurately throughout your essay. Check an authoritative resource if you are unsure of any definitions. While being sophisticated is great, legal jargon if not used correctly or appropriately can weaken your essay. Aim to be concise and to stick to the point. Don’t use ten words when only two will do.

12. Create a Vocabulary Bank

One recurring piece of advice from seasoned law students is to take note of phrases from books and articles, key definitions or concepts and even quotes from your professors. When it comes to writing your law essay, you will have a whole range of ideas and vocabulary that will help you to develop your understanding and thoughts on a given topic. This will make writing your law essay even easier!

13. Finally, Take Care of Yourself

Last but certainly not least, looking after your health can improve your attitude towards writing your law essay your coursework in general. Sleep, eat, drink and exercise appropriately. Take regular breaks and try not to stress. Do not forget to enjoy writing the essay!

Words by Karen Fulton

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Studying Made Easy with LawBirdie

Completing written assignments has never been easier! Our platform provides top-notch academic help round the clock, offers helpful essay writing tools, and displays excellent AI-free papers on every law-related topic out there. Keep reading to learn more!

LawBirdie.com is a vast database of essay samples for law students. We strive to simplify your academic life by providing writing ideas and inspiration on various topics. In addition to high-quality AI-free samples, we offer a variety of writing tools as well as expert assistance with any task.

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When your work is complete you'll get a notification in your inbox. Download your paper, check it meets the requirements you gave us, and then transfer full payment to your expert!

Frequently asked questions

How quickly can you finish my law essay, what formatting styles do you use, can i add requirements after placing the order, can i get an originality report with my law essay help, does your law essay writing service offer a money-back guarantee, a top-quality law essay writing service.

Law is a complex matter, meaning that it demands a thorough understanding and careful attention to every detail. In this case, our best law essay writing service is just what you need.

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Law essay writing service features

Students are under more pressure than ever nowadays, with tuition fees going through the roof. This means they can't afford to concentrate on their learning without also juggling a part-time or even full-time job. Sharehouses don't always offer the best environment for completing assignments, and public libraries are closing as institutions for the public good give way to those that bring in large profits.

It is in this environment that we offer a way for students to get the assistance they need, through expert help that doesn't cost an arm and a leg. From just $10 per page, we provide full-service help with custom law essays, which includes a paper crafted by a professional, expert formatting and referencing, and an originality report attached upon request. In addition, our QA team oversees the entire process and you can chat with both your expert and/or our customer service team through a one-on-one chat.

With our service, you are guaranteed timely delivery from professionals in the law subject field who are used to dealing with papers of any complexity. Despite our high quality, we also offer some of the most affordable prices around, so every student can feel comfortable coming to us, whether they need a law or business essay writing service .

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Quality law essay assistance

Essays on law rarely only take a couple of hours to complete. You are required to consult scholarly articles, create complex theses, and research and structure a range of arguments. It is not an easy thing to do, especially if you are short on time or don't have a lot of experience in this area.

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Imagine this - you've finally finished a long day, it's getting late, you grab a quick bite to eat and sit down to face that long essay that's due soon.

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Best Law Essay Writing Service

You’re sitting in front of your computer, and your cursor is blinking at you, expectantly, waiting for your prose to flow forth, but you’re stumped and greatly in need of the best law essay writing service you can find.

Or, maybe you’ve conquered the blank page and have set down every idea you’ve got on your essay ’ s topic – chosen from the law school essay prompts at your school of choice – you've done the research and are reading back over the paper and realizing that what you thought was an essay is really a mess. You still need that service, don’t you?

Still another possibility: you’ve done a draft or two of your law school optional essay and you think your essay is in good shape, but you don’t know, and worse, you think it could be better, but you’re not sure exactly how. More than ever, you need that service; at least with the other two you knew what the problem was.

The best law essay writing service will help you over your hurdles to get you to your best work. Read on to find out how you can improve your writing and make exponential gains over time.

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Article Contents 8 min read

How an essay writing service can help you.

Whatever your problem is with your application essay, an essay writing service will help you work through it. Any number of difficulties can occur while you try to turn a blank screen into a finished piece of work. You need to research, organize your research, outline your essay, crack into the actual writing, create footnotes, build in references and citations, sharpen the prose, whittle out the superfluous elements, and keep your spelling and grammar in check.

That’s a lot to get done and a great essay writing service can help you with most of it.

Brainstorming

Blink-blink goes the cursor in your word processor of choice, and you have no idea how to even start your law school application essay, or law school letter of intent . There is too much to talk about – your personal life and how you came to pursue law, your academic history, your mentor relationships that brought you here, your work experience, and on and on and on.

Consulting with your law essay writing service will give you tremendous insight into how to sort your life into your story. These might sound the same – and they are similar – but the difference is that your life is the total sum of everything that has happened to you and that you’ve done, but your story is a compact, focused tale of how you came from a place to get where you are now.

Brainstorming is the first step in that process, and your law essay writing service will help you set your thoughts out, put them all in chronological order, and figure out how to start sorting out what you need to talk about. You can set aside all extraneous information and “plot points” to focus on the parts of your story that will make it resonate with any reader and give you the focus you need to move forward.

This might be a problem of overflow: you have a wealth of knowledge and experiences from your journey, and you need to know how to prioritize those sources and focus them to serve you best. Again, your advisor will be your refuge; use their expertise to direct you to put together the best central themes and ideas that will buoy up your application essay. With a little help, you can narrow your story and reflect on what to include in your application essay.

Knowing how to set up a perfect outline is like setting up a solid foundation for a house: it doesn’t have anything in it that you think of as a house – like walls or a ceiling – but that foundation is going to be the most important step you can take to building a solid structure. Without it, everything collapses.

All writing is built on an outline. Some people write with a scratchy outline in their heads; others write down their outlines and work on them as extensively as if the outline were a whole piece of writing unto itself. We recommend the latter approach. Outlines are foundations, and you don’t want to build a poor one. Getting a great outline together is one of the best services an essay writing advisor can provide. Our law essay writing service will make sure you’ve got the right structure, a good progression, and robust content that puts your best case forward.

Keep in mind that this process will help you, regardless of which section of your application you are working on, from law school personal statements to law school addendums .

Writing a law school optional essay? Here are some tips.

With your central story material and outline in hand, it’s time to do the actual writing. This is what most people think of when they think of writing. Some people think that bashing out several paragraphs with a bookending header-and-conclusion combo will suffice, but really, there is so much more to this phase than that.

First off, multiple drafts will be needed. Even geniuses usually refine their work. Unless you are categorically sublime, you’ll need to refine. Most of your interactions with your application essay and with your essay writing service will take place in this phase.

Starting with a rough draft, an expert from an essay writing service will help you identify any problem spots, note any errors, and make sure that you are communicating at a top level. Remember that your work might be clear to you but give a reader pause or be difficult for another person to understand. Your expert will solve that.

This process is about you learning how to write. Don’t think of your law essay writing service as doing the writing for you; think of them as guiding you through your process of becoming the best writer you can be. They will teach you important syntax, grammar, and language lessons that will help your writing. In other words, you will learn how to write.

Running your application essay through the wringer will produce your best work. It will help with your prose, too, so that your writing is clean, effective, and says what you need it to say.

Proofreading, Spelling, and Grammar

Of course, one or more drafts in the process will be given over to checking details and making sure that the technical aspects of your writing are optimal. Even the best, most fastidious fact-checkers and syntax wizards need help. A pair of outside eyes will help immensely in making sure you have no redundancies or misspellings.

The more you use an expert service, the more you’ll find yourself spotting errors and problems. You’ll learn from both perspectives, as it were – as a writer, and as an editor. This process will hone your own essay writing abilities. What does that mean? The more you use the service, the less you will need it, and the better you will get at writing from the get-go.

This means that jumping in sooner is going to serve you exponentially as the years go by, not just in school, but in your future career. Preparing legal documents, or even statements and arguments for a trial, will benefit from the knowledge you will gain from working with the essay writing service on your application or law school optional essay . Simply put, using the best law essay writing service for your application essay will pay off when you need to start writing essays for your actual law school classes as well! It is as much an investment as it is a transaction because you will reap rewards for years and years.

Expert Advice

None of those areas would be worth discussing with somebody who didn’t know what they were doing. You need somebody who is an expert at:

Not to mention the ability to give all of that knowledge to you, the client and student. The best law essay writing service will give you access to an expert, or multiple experts, to directly work with, who are focused on your essay and are masters in all of those areas.

Legality of an Essay Writing Service

We’ve just covered a lot of positive things that an essay writing service will help you with, but let’s touch on what an essay writing service isn’t and what it doesn’t do.

It Won’t Write Your Essays For You

No legitimate, above-board essay writing service writes for you. You are always the author and architect of your own work, and that’s the way it must be. The legality is clear that you shouldn’t plagiarize or pass off somebody else’s work as your own. All schools have rules against this.

You cannot have somebody else write your application essay for you; it’s your story, after all, so you’re the only one who can tell it.

Forget legality for a second – an odd notion for a future law student – and just consider the morality of that action. It’s not right to claim the work of another person as your own. It’s dishonest. We can sit around swapping lying lawyer jokes all day, but the fact of the matter is that most lawyers don’t want to be dishonest. Most lawyers want to represent clients to the best of their ability, and that includes their consciences. You don’t want to enter your law career with such a malignant blot in your personal history. Illegal or not, whether you got away with it or not; you aren’t that kind of person, and you don’t want to be.

An essay writing service won’t solve all your problems. It won’t “cure” you immediately and permanently of writer’s block or needing to revise and refine your essays. It directs you and instructs you in how to hone your papers and get your ideas out into the world – conveying them to any reader – in such a manner that the reader will understand your ideas. In fact, that’s part of the benefits of using the service: you learn how to do all of that refining and how to beat writer’s block so that you’ll already know how to go about it when you have to write the next essay.

You still supply the ideas and the labor to make it all come together properly. Don’t think that an essay writing service will get you out of working hard, because it won’t. You still have to sweat a little bit. The advantages, however, are that you will be working hard with help – so your burden is lighter. Nor will you waste time or effort. Without a great law essay writing service, you might start your essay several times over, needing to delete and start again, or you might work on revising and editing while not actually improving the essay; a good essay writing service focuses your efforts on what needs fixing and what needs to be highlighted, enhanced, and allowed to shine.

So, while you can still expect to work hard, it will be much more tolerable – or even enjoyable – knowing that your efforts will all go toward your best essay possible and that it will give you exponential benefits in the future, after your application is successful, as you continue to write and refine papers and essays.

Writing a law school personal essay is not easy. Watch this video for some expert tips!

No matter how good your writing is, wherever you are planning on studying, from Stanford to Columbia , a law essay writing service will help you write a better application essay. No matter how lost you feel while working on your essay, a law essay writing service will help you find your way.

You can, but it will be generic advice and not as helpful or effective.

Compare and contrast: with an online guide, you don’t always know who wrote it – they might know nothing about either writing, the law, or law school. The online guide writer certainly doesn’t know you. Their advice might not apply to you and won’t be able to identify any specific problems or needs you have.

Getting the best law essay writing service, on the other hand, hooks you up with a known expert – one who understands the law, essays, and writing – and has that expert talk directly to you, going over your specific paper. The quality of advice is just going to be better because it’s specific to you.

As a final note, even just on a pure “numbers” level, the online guide just needs you to click so they can get their “hit” on their website. A service profits by your satisfaction – by getting results. You have a grade and your career and future at stake. The expert essay service editor has their career to think about, too, so they also have skin in the game. You’re really in it together.

You certainly could, and it’s not that a fellow law student might not be able to help a little bit, but even if they’re a great essayist, that doesn’t mean they can convey that knowledge to you.

Experts who teach know more than just how to write an essay; they know how to tell you how to write your best essay. Your friend probably doesn’t know how to do that. This bears repeating: you’ll just get better results with an expert, hired for their skills, who is invested in your essay. The same thing applies to an on-campus writing service once you’re past your application and into writing essays for your classes. It’s not that they can’t help or won’t be of use to you in some way, but a TA looking for some on-campus work hours is unlikely to be as effective in helping you as somebody who is a specific kind of expert who is working closely with you.

About three or four.

You’ll probably write out an outline, then a first draft, and then refine for one or two more drafts. Finally, you’ll do a “polish draft” where you make sure that elements like spelling, grammar, and formatting are all spot-on.

Let’s think about numbers for a second. Consider the amount of money you spend on law school – everything from housing and food to books and tuition. Taking longer to make that journey, or coming scraping by with subpar work – can adversely affect your future career; it will delay your ability to make money in law, or reduce how much money you make once you start practicing.

Now rethink that question: can you afford to ignore the service?

With that said, if money is very, very tight, drop us a line and ask about different payment options and plans for the service. We want you to have great results, and we want to help. Most of that is in ensuring a high quality and standard for our services, but we also want to be competitive and help you be able to afford those services.

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How to Write a Law Essay: 8 Steps

December 28, 2023

1. Choosing an Essay Topic

When it comes to writing a law essay, choosing an appropriate topic is crucial. A well-chosen topic will make your research and writing process smoother and more enjoyable, while a poorly chosen topic can lead to frustration and a lackluster essay.

Firstly, consider what has piqued your interest in your law studies so far. Perhaps there was a case or topic that you found particularly intriguing, or an aspect of law that you feel needs further exploration. Alternatively, you could focus on a current legal issue that you feel strongly about and want to delve deeper into.

It’s also important to make sure your topic isn’t too broad or too narrow. Too broad of a topic can result in a lack of focus, while a topic that is too narrow won’t give you enough research material to work with.

Ultimately, choosing a law essay topic is about finding a balance between your personal interests and the practical aspects of your assignment. Take the time to carefully consider your options, and don’t be afraid to ask for input or guidance from your professor or classmates.

Possible Law Essay Topics

• The impact of social media on defamation laws.
• Analyzing the constitutionality of mandatory minimum sentencing.
• The effectiveness of restorative justice in reducing recidivism rates.
• Legal implications of artificial intelligence in the workplace.
• Exploring the rights of privacy versus national security in the digital age.
• Examining the legal and ethical issues surrounding euthanasia.
• Assessing the role of international law in combating climate change.
• Analyzing the legal framework for cyberbullying and online harassment.
• The legalization and regulation of recreational marijuana: a critical analysis.
• Exploring the intersection of intellectual property rights and emerging technologies.

Remember to choose a topic that aligns with your interests and research availability, while ensuring that it is adequately focused for a detailed analysis within the scope of your essay.

2. Researching the Topic

Before diving into writing a law essay, it’s essential to conduct thorough research on the chosen topic. This step is critical to ensure that the essay is factually correct, well-supported, and logically structured. Here are some tips on how to research effectively for a law essay:

• Begin by gathering basic information. Use specialized textbooks, journals, and databases to gain a foundational understanding of the topic.
• Use secondary sources to gain a broader perspective on the topic. Utilize reputable news sources, government publications, and online legal databases to broaden your search.
• Access case law. To support your arguments, cite legal cases that illustrate your argument. Access online case law databases that have accessible search functions.
• Use primary sources. Primary sources include statutes, regulation, and the constitution. It’s important to have a good grasp of the primary sources since they are the basis of much of legal research.
• Take notes. Keep track of all relevant information, including sources and citations. Use an organized format that will make outlining and writing the essay a simpler process.
• Evaluate and analyze. Through the research process, it’s important to analyze the information found. Determine what is and is not relevant, and how it factors into your argument.

By conducting thorough research, you will be able to support your argument with a well-evidenced and structured essay. Remember to keep track of all sources and citations as they will be necessary in the writing process.

3. Developing Strong Thesis Statement

Developing a strong thesis statement is essential when writing a law essay. This powerful statement sets the tone for the entire article and guides the reader’s understanding of your argument. To create an effective thesis statement, you must first fully understand the topic and question at hand. Take your time to research and gather relevant information to support your viewpoint. As you delve deeper into the subject, analyze different perspectives and identify the key arguments surrounding the topic. Once you have a clear understanding of the various viewpoints, narrow down your focus and craft a concise and persuasive thesis statement that clearly states your position. Remember, a strong thesis statement should be debatable, specific, and assertive. Spend time honing your thesis to ensure it effectively conveys your argument and engages the reader’s interest.

Example thesis statement:

“The death penalty should be abolished in the United States because it violates the Eighth Amendment, fails to act as an effective deterrent, and disproportionately affects marginalized communities.”

4. Structuring the Law Essay

Structuring your law essay is crucial to ensure clarity, coherence, and a logical flow of ideas. Here’s a breakdown of how to structure your law essay:

Introduction:

• Provide a brief overview of the topic and its significance.
• Present the thesis statement, clearly stating your argument.

Background and Context:

• Provide necessary background information to help the reader understand the topic.
• Explain relevant legal concepts, principles, or statutes related to your argument.
• Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that relates to your thesis statement.
• Present your arguments and support them with evidence, case law, or legal authorities.
• Use clear and concise language to explain your points and provide analysis.

Counter-Argument:

• Acknowledge and present the counter-argument(s) objectively and logically.
• Refute the counter-argument(s) with reasoned explanations and supportive evidence.

Conclusion:

• Summarize your main arguments and their supporting evidence.
• Restate your thesis statement and highlight its significance.
• Offer some final thoughts or suggestions for further research or action.

Remember to use appropriate headings and subheadings to structure your essay effectively. Use transition words and phrases to ensure a smooth flow between paragraphs. Additionally, ensure proper citations and referencing throughout the essay to maintain academic integrity.

5. Writing the Introduction

Writing the introduction is your opportunity to grab the reader’s attention and set the tone for your entire law essay. Here’s how you can effectively structure your introduction:

Start with a hook:

• Use a compelling statement, anecdote, or a relevant quote to engage the reader and create interest in your topic.

Provide background information:

• Give a brief overview of the legal issue or topic you will be discussing.
• Explain the significance and relevance of the topic to the field of law or society at large.

State the purpose and scope of your essay:

• Clearly state your thesis statement, which should encapsulate your main argument.
• Mention the key points you will address and the legal principles, cases, or statutes you will analyze.

Outline the essay structure:

• Provide a brief outline of how your essay will be structured.
• Mention the main sections or arguments you will present.

Establish the context:

• Explain any necessary legal concepts, terms, or background information that the reader needs to understand.

Remember to keep your introduction concise and focused. It should provide enough information to orient the reader and generate interest in your essay. However, save the detailed arguments and evidence for the main body of your essay. Aim to make your introduction clear, engaging, and persuasive, setting the stage for the rest of your law essay.

6. Developing the Body Paragraphs

Developing the body paragraphs is the core of your law essay, where you present and support your arguments with evidence and analysis. Here’s how to effectively structure and develop your body paragraphs:

Start with a topic sentence:

• Each body paragraph should begin with a clear topic sentence that relates to your thesis statement.
• The topic sentence sets the tone and direction for the paragraph.

Present your argument:

• Clearly state your argument or point of view in the opening sentences of each paragraph.
• Provide supporting evidence, such as case law, statutory provisions, or legal principles, to back up your argument.

Analyze and interpret the evidence:

• Explain the significance of the evidence in relation to your argument.
• Analyze how the evidence supports and strengthens your position.

Use legal authorities and sources:

• Cite relevant cases, statutes, or legal commentary to support your arguments.
• Refer to authoritative legal sources, such as court decisions or academic articles, to provide credibility.

Use clear and concise language:

• Clearly articulate your ideas using logical transitions and precise language.
• Avoid unnecessary jargon or overly complex language that may confuse the reader.

Remember to properly structure your paragraphs, provide sufficient evidence and analysis, and link your arguments back to your main thesis statement. Each paragraph should contribute to the overall coherence and flow of your essay, ensuring a convincing and well-supported argument.

7. Present the Counter-argument

Presenting the counter-argument is an essential component of writing a persuasive law essay. Failing to acknowledge opposing viewpoints weakens your argument and makes it appear biased. Therefore, it is crucial to identify different perspectives surrounding the topic and analyze these perspectives objectively. Once you have identified the counter-argument, you can present it in your essay, offering evidence and explanations to support it. Addressing counter-arguments in your essay strengthens your credibility as a writer and demonstrates your ability to look at a topic from multiple perspectives. Additionally, this approach makes your essay more convincing by acknowledging and addressing potential criticism of your argument. Keep in mind that effectively presenting the counter-argument requires thorough research, logical reasoning, and evidence-based arguments. Therefore, take your time to critically analyze opposing views to ensure your argument is backed up by relevant and reliable supporting evidence. By doing so, you can construct a well-reasoned and thoughtful essay that can withstand any counter-argument.

8. Crafting the Conclusion

Crafting a strong conclusion is essential to leave a lasting impression on the reader and effectively summarize your arguments in a law essay. Here are some key steps to consider when writing your conclusion:

Summarize your main points:

• Recapitulate the main arguments you presented in the body paragraphs.
• Provide a brief overview of the evidence you presented to support each argument.

Reinforce your thesis statement:

• Restate your thesis statement in a concise manner to remind the reader of your main argument.
• Emphasize the significance and relevance of your thesis in the context of the larger legal issue.

Offer a broader perspective:

• Connect your arguments to the wider legal or societal implications of the topic.
• Discuss the potential consequences or impact of your findings on the field of law or legal practice.

Suggest areas for further research:

• Highlight any unanswered questions or areas of debate that may require future exploration.
• Propose avenues for future research or policy development related to your topic.

Conclude with a compelling closing statement:

• Leave the reader with a thought-provoking final remark that leaves a lasting impression.
• Use a concise and powerful statement to tie together your essay and reinforce your main message.

Ensure that your conclusion is concise, focused, and aligned with your overall argument. It should serve as a strong ending to your law essay, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of your position and the importance of the topic discussed.

Use Legal Terms Accurately

In the realm of writing law essays, the accurate and precise use of legal terms is paramount. This subheading focuses on the importance of correctly employing legal terminology in order to craft an exceptional law essay.

Mastering legal terminology is essential for two reasons. Firstly, it demonstrates an understanding and grasp of the subject matter, showcasing your expertise to both professors and potential employers. Secondly, using legal terms accurately enhances the clarity and coherence of your arguments, making your essay more persuasive and compelling. However, it is crucial to strike a balance – overusing legal jargon may alienate readers who are not well-versed in the law.

To ensure accuracy, it is imperative to consult reliable legal sources such as authoritative textbooks, journals, or statutes. Moreover, reading and analyzing sample essays or exemplary legal writing can provide guidance on how to effectively incorporate legal terms into your own work. By diligently honing your legal language skills, you will significantly elevate the quality and impact of your law essays.

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How to Write a Law Essay: A Comprehensive Guide with Examples

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Let's put it this way: if you are studying law, you will agree that writing a law essay is no easy feat. Whether you’re dealing with case law, statutes, or legal principles, structuring your essay correctly and presenting your arguments effectively are key to achieving a high grade. This guide will walk you through the essentials of writing a law essay, including structure, introduction examples, and practical tips to help you produce a first-class essay.

A Law Essay Structure

What is the basic structure of a law essay? A well-structured essay not only presents your arguments clearly but also demonstrates your grasp of legal concepts. Here’s a typical structure for a law essay:

Introduction

Overview : Briefly introduce the topic and outline the key issues. Thesis Statement : Clearly state your main argument or position. Purpose : Indicate how the essay will address the issues and what the reader can expect.

Issue Identification : Clearly identify and explain the legal issues or questions. Legal Analysis : Discuss relevant case law, statutes, and legal principles. Argument Development : Develop your arguments logically, providing evidence and analysis to support your points. Counterarguments : Consider and address potential counterarguments or alternative viewpoints.

Summary : Recap the main points and arguments. Reinforcement : Restate your thesis in light of the evidence presented. Final Thoughts : Offer any final reflections or implications of your analysis.

Crafting an Effective Introduction

The introduction of a law essay sets the tone for the rest of your work. A strong introduction should provide a clear overview of the topic and establish the context for your argument. Here’s how you can structure it:

• Hook : Start with an engaging statement or question related to the topic. This could be a relevant quote, a brief anecdote, or a provocative question.
• Context : Provide background information to help the reader understand the relevance of the topic.
• Thesis Statement : Clearly outline your main argument or position. This should guide the direction of your essay.
• Roadmap : Briefly outline how you will address the issues and structure your argument.

Example of a Law Essay Introduction:

“The principle of judicial review is a cornerstone of the British legal system, ensuring that all public authorities act within their legal boundaries. This essay explores the scope and limits of judicial review, focusing on recent judicial decisions that have reshaped its application. By analysing key case law and statutory developments, this essay will argue that while judicial review remains a vital check on executive power, recent trends indicate a shift towards more restrained judicial intervention. The discussion will be organised into three main sections: an examination of the historical development of judicial review, an analysis of contemporary judicial approaches, and an evaluation of the implications for future judicial oversight.”

Writing the Body of the Essay

The body of your law essay is where you provide detailed analysis and develop your arguments. Follow these steps to ensure clarity and depth in your writing:

• Identify the Issues : Clearly define the legal issues or questions at hand. This section should set the foundation for your analysis.
• Provide Legal Analysis : Discuss relevant case law, statutes, and legal principles. Be sure to provide brief summaries of relevant cases, discuss any statutes or legislative provisions relevant to the topic and explain any key legal principles or doctrines that apply to the issues.
• Develop Your Arguments : Present your arguments logically, using evidence and analysis to support your points. Ensure that each paragraph transitions smoothly to the next, maintaining a clear and coherent flow.
• Address Counterarguments : Consider potential counterarguments or alternative viewpoints. Address these within your essay to demonstrate a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Example of Argument Development

“In the landmark case of R (on the application of Miller) v. Secretary of State for Exiting the European Union (2017), the UK Supreme Court reaffirmed the principle that significant constitutional changes require parliamentary approval. The court’s decision highlighted the importance of maintaining parliamentary sovereignty in the face of executive decisions. However, recent judicial trends suggest a cautious approach towards intervening in political matters, reflecting a broader shift towards judicial restraint. This shift raises questions about the future scope of judicial review and its role in holding the executive accountable.”

Crafting a Strong Conclusion

Your conclusion should summarise the key points discussed and reinforce your thesis. Avoid introducing new information; instead, focus on synthesising your arguments and providing a final perspective. Keep in mind the following:

• Summarise Main Points : Briefly recap the key issues and arguments presented in the body.
• Restate Thesis : Reaffirm your thesis statement, demonstrating how it has been supported by your analysis.
• Final Thoughts : Offer any concluding reflections or implications. This could include suggestions for further research or practical implications of your findings.

Example of a Law Essay Conclusion:

“In conclusion, while the principle of judicial review continues to serve as a crucial mechanism for ensuring accountability, recent developments indicate a more nuanced approach by the judiciary. The balance between maintaining judicial oversight and respecting the limits of judicial intervention is delicate. As demonstrated through recent case law and statutory changes, the evolving nature of judicial review reflects broader shifts in constitutional theory and practice. Future developments will likely continue to shape the scope and application of judicial review, underscoring the need for ongoing scholarly and judicial attention.”

Final Tips for Writing a Law Essay

• Use clear and precise language to convey your arguments. Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences.
• Ensure all claims and arguments are well-supported by legal evidence and analysis.
• Always edit and proofread your essay for clarity, coherence, and correctness. Ensure that your writing adheres to legal academic standards.

Read some complete law essay examples here.

Final Remarks

Writing a law essay involves understanding the structure, crafting an effective introduction, developing your arguments, and presenting a clear conclusion. By following the guidelines and examples provided, you can create a well-organised and compelling essay. Remember, the quality of your analysis and the clarity of your arguments are key to achieving a first-class result.

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How to Write a Law Essay

Last Updated: August 11, 2023

This article was co-authored by Clinton M. Sandvick, JD, PhD . Clinton M. Sandvick worked as a civil litigator in California for over 7 years. He received his JD from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1998 and his PhD in American History from the University of Oregon in 2013. This article has been viewed 241,457 times.

In a college legal studies course, and in some law school courses, you may be required to write a research paper addressing a legal topic. These essays can be tricky, because the law is constantly evolving. To secure a top grade, your essay must be well-researched and coherently argued. With proper planning and research, you can write a stellar legal essay. [Note: this article does not address how to write law school essay exams or bar exam questions, which require different techniques and strategies.]

Choosing an Essay Topic

• A narrow essay prompt might read, "Discuss the evolution and impact of the exclusionary rule of evidence in the United States." A broad prompt might read, "Discuss how a civil rights movement led to changes in federal and/or state law."
• If you are invited to choose your own topic, your professor may require you to submit a written proposal or outline to ensure that your chosen topic complies with the prompt. If you are not sure if your topic is within the parameters of the prompt, propose your topic to your professor after class or during his or her office hours.

• Hopefully, your course readings, lectures, and class discussions will have given you enough background knowledge to select a topic. If not, review your class notes and browse online for additional background information.
• It is not uncommon to change your topic after doing some research. You may end up narrowing the questions your essay will answer, or changing your topic completely.

• If you can, try to focus on an are of the law that affects you. For example, if your family is involved in agriculture, you may be interested in writing about water use regulations .

Researching Your Topic

• If you are prohibited from citing internet resources, you can still use online research to guide you to physical primary and secondary sources in your local library or bookstore.

• Look at footnotes, citations, and indexes in tertiary sources. These are great for finding books, articles, and legal cases that are relevant to your topic. Also take note of the names of authors, who may have written multiple works on your topic.

• Also find search engines for related fields, such as history or political science. Ask your librarian to recommend specialized search engines tailored to other disciplines that may have contributed to your topic.

• Never cut and paste from the web into your notes or essay. This often leads to inadvertent plagiarism because students forget what is a quotation and what is paraphrasing. When gathering sources, paraphrase or add quotation marks in your outline.
• Plagiarism is a serious offense. If you ultimately hope to be a lawyer, an accusation of plagiarism could prevent you from passing the character and fitness review.

Drafting the Essay

• An effective introduction takes the reader out of his world and into the world of your essay. [2] X Trustworthy Source University of North Carolina Writing Center UNC's on-campus and online instructional service that provides assistance to students, faculty, and others during the writing process Go to source Explain why the subject is important and briefly summarizes the rest of your argument. After reading your introduction, your reader should know what you are going to discuss and in what order you will be discussing it.
• Be prepared to revise your introduction later. Summarizing your essay will be easier after you have written it, especially if you deviate from your outline.

• State each argument of your essay as a statement that, if true, would support your thesis statement.
• Provide supporting information drawn from primary and secondary sources that support your argument. Remember to cite your sources.
• Provide your own original analysis, explaining to the reader that based on the primary and secondary sources you have presented, the reader should be persuaded by your argument.

Formatting Your Essay

Proofreading the Essay

• Open up a Word document. On the Quick Access Toolbar at the top, click on the down arrow. The words “Customize Quick Access Toolbar” will appear when you hover over the arrow for two seconds.
• Click on the arrow. Then click on “More Commands.”
• In the “Choose commands from” drop-down box, choose “All commands.”
• Scroll down to find “Speak.” Highlight this and then click “add.” Then click “okay.” Now the Speak function should appear on your Quick Access Toolbar.
• Highlight the text you want read back to you, and then click on the Speak icon. The text will be read back to you.

• Do not rely on a spell checker exclusively, as it will not catch typos like "statute" versus "statue."

Revising the Essay

• You can share the essay with someone outside of class, but a classmate more likely has the requisite knowledge to understand the subject matter of the essay.

Expert Q&A

You might also like.

• ↑ https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/2/53/
• ↑ http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/introductions/
• ↑ https://www.legalbluebook.com/
• ↑ https://support.office.com/en-ca/article/Using-the-Speak-text-to-speech-feature-459e7704-a76d-4fe2-ab48-189d6b83333c

About This Article

To write a law essay, start by writing a thesis statement on your chosen topic. Phrase your thesis statement as an argument, using words like “because” or “therefore” to state your point. Write an outline of the arguments you will use to support your thesis statement, then use that outline to build the body of your paper. Include any counter-arguments, but use your evidence to convince the reader why your point of view is valid, and the counter-arguments are not. Be sure to cite all of your sources in the format preferred by your professor. For tips from our reviewer on finding the best sources for your topic, keep reading! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Frequently asked questions

What is the cost of your service, what types of essays can you provide, how can i make the payment, how do we hire our legal experts, what are the requirements of our service, will i be caught for plagiarism, we can help you with your law essay writing needs.

Studying for a law degree comes with lots of difficult tasks. We help students improve their studies by providing the best law essay service on the web.

Use our service and reduce your study stress

Looking for the best law essay writing service around? You'll be pleased with us; we take your specific requirements and attachments to create excellent papers from scratch. You no longer have to worry about late submissions or failing your assignments; our expert writers are here to give you the support needed to ace your studies while still being able to attend to your work, family, and social commitments. Just tell us your deadline, and the team at EssayService will take care of the rest.

Features of our law essay writing service

Students who use our service benefit from the numerous free features we have to offer. One exciting feature is the personalized approach we have for every order. If you provide a writing sample from a past course, we work to mimic your personal writing style to create an authentic essay. This helps students feel great about using our essay writing service . We also provide 24/7 support at any time of the day or night to help answer any questions students may have when asking for law essay help online. So, do not hesitate to reach out with any questions. We help students achieve better grades in difficult law classes. Sometimes, students worry about passing specific courses, but once you contact us, these worries will wither away.

Choosing a qualified law essay writer

To maintain the quality of our law essay writing service, we take the time to hire only the best candidates for the writer position. We go through an intense hiring process with many steps, such as interviews and mock tasks, to ensure the quality of our team. Students can trust us as we look for candidates with at least three years of law experience and who can demonstrate a professional attitude. Students come to us expecting we can help deliver results on time and according to their standards. And that is what we do! When we hire new law essay writers, they must go through training and pass certain tests to get the job. This is how we guarantee our students the most advanced and professional online help. If you have any questions about the certifications of your writer, please reach out to our support team; they will be happy to assist.

Exceptional law essay assistance tailored for the determined student

Students coming to us are not seeking "just average" law essay writing help. If you come to our service, you need real professional help. We know that law students face lots of burdens and too many tasks. Sometimes, they feel overwhelmed, and it impacts the quality of their work. With the unique needs of students in mind, we have created this law essay writing service. EssayService effectively delivers the results you want. Our service has helped students everywhere get better grades on their law essay assignments. We make our platform easy to use and assure the quality of our service. Each writer creates unique and custom content for your law essay writing based on the assignment details you provide. After your order, you will be left with a final law essay that you are proud of.

Private and secure law essay writing services

We want the students who use EssayService to feel comfortable and confident about using our service. Often, students come to us worried about their privacy. However, we prioritize security and safety to protect the students we help. Our service only collects necessary information. We only collect the data we need to help you and never sell your information to third parties. Your personal information will be safe and secure with us. When you make the payment, it is processed through a secure payment platform. So you can feel safe that your credit card information will never be stolen. Also, we do not use your name for orders. Instead, we will assign you an identification number to help us track your order.

How do I get law essay help from EssayService?

EssayService makes it very simple for students to get the law essay help they seek. When you need help, fill out our quick order form by writing down as much information about your assignment as possible. This includes the due date, length requirements, and more. Then, you will place funds in your account through a secure payment system. After that, you will have access to many experts capable of helping with custom law essays. Look through their profiles, read their bios, and analyze their reviews to choose the one that fits you most. You can communicate with your writer through our secure chat. Besides that, at any point, our customer support team is also here to help if you need more guidance about using our platform. Your money will be released to your writer once you are delighted with your essay. If you ask for revisions, we will do them ASAP.

The Best Law Essay Writing Services

For us, uk, canadian, and australian students.

Sometimes, you may think that it will be just fine if somebody help me write my law essay. When it comes to writing legal essays, we understand that it can be quite the challenge, but it could be the perfect solution for you.

Law Essay Help or Custom Law Essay Writing?

Are you considering outsourcing your law essay writing content, or perhaps you’ve just in need of support for an upcoming deadline? That’s where The Uni Tutor can help you. Our team of dedicated writers are onboard to ensure you’re never left in a bind when it comes to creating relevant, expert and professional copy for whatever purpose.

What can our law essay writing team offer you? Here are just a few of the benefits our in-house professional writing service provides:

• Access to expert professional legal writers, ready to create content for you as and when you need it.
• The support of a native-speaking team of law essay writers when it comes to writing those vital GDL essays or coursework pieces.
• Fully supported, sourced content that’s completely unique to you, and created on your request.
• The production of any kind of content you require, whether it’s a digital article, piece of coursework, academic writing or anything else.
• Excellent prices that are suitable for students of all types and background
• Fast and consistent delivery times, allowing you to receive your content when you need it.
• A quick and practical order process that’s easy to understand and even easier to complete.
• Dissertations

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Law Essays Writing Help As a solution for students

With more and more students turning towards law as a viable choice for their future career, the demands for excellent law essay writing is only increasing. Whether you’re a busy student who needs support in getting their work done, our service can offer you that freedom. Or if you’re a mature learner who requires extra help in creating that custom law essay on deadline, we can provide all you need.

The very nature of law school and learning any forms of law makes it a high-paced, competitive environment. As a law student, it’s likely you’re asked to perform all kinds of tasks to meet your grade. Whether it’s presentations, reading, law essay writing or other legal documentation, keeping ahead can be a challenge even for the most organised person.

Whether you’re in your first year of law, or you’re entering your final studies to qualify as a lawyer, the support of an expert essay writing service is what you need. We’re equipped to create stellar content on just about any legal subject matter. From legal writing to law-based documents, the creation of short essays to long-form copy, we have the skills and experience to transform your requirements into excellent writing.

We know law inside and out, enabling us to create just about anything our customers might need. We create all our content to your specifications, with our experts insight to ensure you get the best grades for your work every time. We work on any of the following projects and more:

• ✔ Academic writing papers
• ✔ Legal essays and short essays
• ✔ Ongoing coursework content
• ✔ Law articles and papers
• ✔ Research papers and analysis
• ✔ Other legal or academic documents

Why you need a law essay writing service

Whatever the reason, whether it’s lack of time or unexpected deadlines, everyone needs a helping hand every now and then for the completion of their essays and course content. With The Uni Tutor, we’re perfectly placed to offer that extra helping hand. Our services ensure you can hand in your essay on time, and achieve the grade you want to. We’re equipped for the best law essay writing out there.

All you have to do is provide us with a brief of your requirements, and our in-house expert writing team can create content you’ll be proud to put your name on. We know the time and energy commitment required for legal writing, and we’re up to the challenge when you need that extra support to get the job done.

If you’re someone who leaves your essays to the last minute, or you just struggle to cope with the stress of tight deadlines, that’s when a law essay writing service is the best choice for you. Save your energy and attention for what really matters, and let us do the rest. With many trained lawyers and legal teams also utilising legal writing services beyond their education, there’s no reason why you shouldn’t consider using our services now.

With our team of copywriters and content creators checked and approved to create your content by our professional team, you can be sure that choosing us helps you start with your best foot forward. After all, why should this one essay be the thing that prevents you reaching those goals, and striving to be better? Our custom law essay services are more than just a one-time service. They’re a lifeline when it comes to ensuring you’re on-track to graduate, and achieve all you want to.

Can you help me write my law essay?

With so many areas of the law, it may seem that one company just can’t provide the knowledge and services for every individual area. But at The Uni Tutor, our team of law essay writers are designed to do just that. We’re equipped to create content in just about every area of law, including the following:

• ✔ Criminal law – focusing on unlawful behaviours and legal processes surrounding them, we can create content for all legal documents in this area.
• ✔ Corporate law – primarily working with institutions and businesses, we can write essays specifically involving the processes involved in corporate legalities.
• ✔ Environmental law – when it come to the laws surrounding our planet and ecosystem, we have the skills to create compelling copy.
• ✔ Labour law – learning about everything workplace-related? Our team can create essays and reports specifically for labour-based legal cases.
• ✔ Civil rights law – dealing with government and individual disputes can be a challenging area, but we’re primed to meet those issues head-on.
• ✔ Family law – for those working with sensitive familial law, our services are the perfect choice, with essays that are both professional and personalised.
• ✔ International law – go international and we’ll be happy to meet you there, to create essays around all forms of law beyond borders.
• ✔ Intellectual property law – taking a closer look at the legal rights of businesses and individuals is on our list.

Whatever your specific subject of law, we’re equipped to create legal essays that deal directly with the matter at hand. Whether it’s 2,000 words of intellectual property, or a short synopsis on the basics of family law, our team are ready and waiting to create content you’ll love, with a short turnaround you’ll like even more.

We create content that supports your career goals, whether it’s helping you develop that perfect dissertation, offering last-minute help for that forgotten essay or simply creating professional writing that your educators will love. With your goals and our talents combined, the sky’s the limit when it comes to creating expert legal essays.

Why choose The Uni Tutor for Legal Essay Help?

When it comes to finding the best team for you, there are plenty of factors to consider. Maybe you want a service that has speedy turnaround, or one that can create specific, insightful work that you’ll love. Whatever your needs, The Uni Tutor can meet them. Essays never have to be a cause of stress again – we’ve got it covered.

Our team of writers are specifically picked for the quality and efficiency of their work, leaving our customers happy and keeping them coming back for more. In fact, when it comes to the creation of essay content for legal purposes, we’re one of the best out there. Unlike our competitors, who outsource their content abroad, we work with a tight-knit team to get your work completed to top-tier quality.

Interested in what we can offer? Whether you’re just starting out in the world of law, or you’re nearing the finishing stretch, our services can make all the difference. Contact us today to find out more about what The Uni Tutor can offer your with our professional legal writing services. We’d love to hear from you. If you need law essay help, or you’re considering where to buy a law essay, we’re the people to turn to every time.

Our combined body of experience and sharp insight into the intricacies of legal matters allow us to write impressive academic papers, dissertations and assignments on such varied topics as:

• Criminal law
• Property law
• Corporate law
• Maritime law
• International trade legislation
• Space and planning law

We know full well how tough the competition is if you want to gain entry into top law firms upon graduation.

Given the rapidly increasing influx of law students , a remarkable and faultless law essay or law assignment is indispensable if you want to have an edge over your competition . Obviously, all our custom law papers are 100% guaranteed to be completely original and free of plagiarism. If you get a legal essay from us, you’ve got yourself one amazing piece of legal writing.

Completely original, custom written essays, dissertations and assignments, free of plagiarism

Correctly annotated and referenced

Written to your exact requirements

Can be delivered as fast as 24 hours after receipt of payment

Prices for our Custom Law Essay Writing Service

Undergraduate essays.

Our team of writers is thoroughly experienced in researching and writing for all levels of academic essays, coursework and dissertations.

Whatever the subject that you need researched, our academic writers are up to the task to write your undergraduate essay and help you get terrific grades. In 24 hours, or in two or four weeks, entirely up to you, and with guaranteed on-time delivery, or your money back.

You tell us the precise level of research and the word count you require, and we give you the best essay writing services and employ the best academic writing experts that will definitely get you the grades you deserve.

That’s how simple. And don’t forget: Our 7-day grace period allows you to request any changes you would like to see.

Masters Essays

If you’re studying for your Masters degree and you need help writing an essay or dissertation, you’ll be happy to know that all of our writers are experts in writing essays for MA, MBA, LLM, MSC essays and coursework.

If you get one of our writers to work for you, your coursework and essays will be completed to a Pass, Merit, or Distinction standard.

Your writer himself will be a Distinction Grade degree holder – what more could you want?

You tell us the precise level of research and the word count you require, and we get you essay help and academic writing that will definitely get excellent grades. That’s how simple. And don’t forget: Our 7-day grace period allows you to request any changes you would like to see.

• No Plagiarism: we use several programs to scan for plagiarism and we include a report when we approve and deliver your essay or assignment
• 7 Days of unlimited alterations grace period for any changes to your coursework
• Full ownership and intellectual property rights transferred to you when payment is completed: You will own all copyrights to the work once payment is complete. Nobody will ever be allowed to share, publish or distribute this work unless you give personal permission
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• Guaranteed to never be resold or published anywhere else
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Order your dissertation with our three step order form. Once your form is complete you’ll be on the way to getting where you want to be. When we receive your order it is matched to a writer with a minimum 2.1 degree in your subject, has English as a native language, and has experience in writing professionally. This writer will then start writing your dissertation to your specific instructions. Once your order is complete our team will check that it meets all of our guarantees, including being plagiarism-free and to the grade that you ordered, before delivering it to you on time.

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Law essay writing service for students

Meet our law essay writers.

Get prompt, high-quality help from our human law essay writers at EssayHub, who use their expertise to craft your assignments without using AI.

Professional law essay help benefits

Original essays, law expert writers, guaranteed data security, reasonable prices, unlimited revisions, law essay writing service: how it works.

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Law essay writing services reviews.

We value your feedback! Check out the reviews from students who received custom law essays from our writers.

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Frequently asked questions

Are your writers real law experts, what is the minimum deadline on essayhub, can i talk to the writer when my law essay writing is in progress, how much does it cost to buy a law essay, will anyone know i used your law essay writing service, how to get law essay help, main reasons to trust our law essay writing service.

Over the years, more than ten thousand students have ordered help from our law essay writing services. We take pride in what we do, providing free features such as originality reports, unlimited edits, negotiable pricing, and more. You can check out the reviews from our users and see what really makes us the best law essay writing service.

We handle personal data with the highest level of care, ensuring we only collect what is essential for providing our services. When placing an order, you are assigned a customer ID, so even your writer does not know your name or the school you are attending. All of the payments are made through secure gateways. All you need to buy essay online are task instructions and any additional files your expert might need to complete your order.

Best law essay writing service for students

EssayHub is committed to delivering top-quality help to anyone who needs it. Students love our affordable prices, flexible conditions, and friendly support team! Pay for an essay and take full advantage of our team of law writing experts who will deliver outstanding essay papers on time. The writer will meticulously follow your guidelines, ensuring adherence to the highest academic standards. Whether you're graduating high school or getting your Master's – they can handle it.

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Law Essay Writing Service: Hire an Expert to Complete Your Paper

Have you ever wondered about the common reasons why almost every student needs a law essay writing service? Well students face many issues with academic writing. But this is the most common one: they have no idea how to write law essays .

Do you know why? – No one taught them how to do that.

If you read through some samples of law essays, you’ll notice they are not your usual types of college assignments. They demand more research, more specifics, and more realism. You can’t simply express your point of view and expect a high grade for it.

If this is your first time dealing with an assignment of this type, it’s no wonder why you need a custom law essay writing service. Here at A-Writer.com, we understand what you need and we’re capable to deliver high-quality law essays by your deadline.

How Can a Law Essay Writing Service Help You Be a Better Student?

To answer that question, let’s discuss the issue of law essays. What makes them so challenging for students to seek the best law essay writing service?

• In most cases, you don’t get to choose your topic for law essays. Your professor assigns a question that you have to analyze. It’s a specific question related to the area of law you’re covering with the course. You may be required to analyze a case or a particular bill. The specific expectations of your professors make it hard for you to like the assignment. If you don’t like the topic, there’s nothing you can do about it.
• To analyze the question, you’ll have to access resources that are not easy to read. They will involve legal slang that you still don’t understand.
• You will have to support every single argument with facts. This is not a random assignment; it should prove you’ve got what it takes to practice law in the future. The huge challenge is enough for many students to hire a custom essay writing company . They don’t feel confident enough to tackle it without assistance.
• This is the type of assignment that often leads to plagiarism. When you discuss a case, a bill, or a legal system, you’ll access online resources. You can’t get too creative with your language. You’re seeing facts and you want to include them in your paper. You may paraphrase, but your professor will still catch you in plagiarism. Only a professional essay writer with experience in law assignments can handle such a project with a 100% plagiarism-free approach.
• The editing process is challenging, too. It’s impossible to identify all your mistakes in the content, especially if you’re a non-native English speaker.

Whenever a student faces any of those problems, they get an idea to hire a law essay writing service. It’s a great idea. But you have to be careful with your choice.

Take a Chance to Reduce Your Academic Load

Law students have so many responsibilities they have to deal with in regards to school. At times, it may seem impossible to finish all of your assignments on time and prepare for upcoming exams. If you feel a lot of pressure and don’t know how to do everything you’re assigned, your best bet would be to hire a legal essay writing service for help.

You can find reliable and affordable essay writing help at A-Writer. Whenever you’re overwhelmed by your responsibilities and would like someone else to take on a few of your assignments, you should contact us instantly. We’re always here to help!

Why is A-Writer the Best Law Essay Writing Service?

Hundreds of students choose us on a daily basis. They trust our law essay writing service because they get a one-of-a-kind experience here. We treat everyone as a VIP customer. We guarantee effective results and we live up to the promise.

These are only a few of the features that make A-Writer the best law essay writing service:

• The price is affordable! That’s a huge relief, isn’t it? You expected professional writers to impose high prices, so you were ready to hire amateurs? There’s no need to sacrifice quality for the sake of an affordable price. Here, you get both!

At our website, a law essay will cost you from $22.99 to $67.99 prior to applying a discount. No one ever pays the full price here. You get 15% off on your first order, and up to 15% off on the following orders you place.

• We know how important deadlines are for students who hire a law essay writing service. You need this paper to be done within a specific time frame. We guarantee to meet your deadline. In most cases, our writers complete the papers way before the specified delivery date. You can choose a deadline from 10 days to 3 hours and feel comfortable, knowing that we’ll meet it.
• This is a custom law essay writing service. That means everyone is getting 100% original work without any plagiarism in it. Our writers follow your instructions and develop a law essay from scratch. They reference the sources they use and include unique arguments that get you noticed.
• Our law essay writing service ensures your right to free revisions. We want you to get a paper that you love. We want you to achieve great academic results with it. So if there’s anything you want the writer to change, they will be at your disposal. Just send us a request for revisions. You’ll get them for free!

Professional Law Essay Writers

If you’re new to A-Writer, you’re probably wondering why you should hire law essay writers on this website. To make it easy for you to decide who to hire, we’ll let you know that all of our law writers finished law school and have at least a few years of academic writing experience.

When you hire one of our writers, they won’t just do your assignment so that you can get a good grade. They’ll write it in a way that will help you learn how to research and improve your writing skills simply by reading the paper you received.

How to Use the Best Law Essay Writing Service

You’re too busy, aren’t you?

You have several classes to attend on a daily basis. If you’re like most students, you’re struggling with the huge expenses so you work part-time to cover some of them. You also keep up with several TV shows, and you want to spend time with your friends. You’re responsible, so you also find time for studying.

With all those responsibilities, you don’t want the essay writing agency to bug you with a lengthy and boring ordering process. We know that! That’s why we make it easy for you to get your essay without much effort.

• We need your guidelines! There’s a simple order form that you can complete in a matter of minutes. Feel free to contact an agent if you need help with something.
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11 Rules for Essay Paragraph Structure (with Examples)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

Learn about our Editorial Process

How do you structure a paragraph in an essay?

If you’re like the majority of my students, you might be getting your basic essay paragraph structure wrong and getting lower grades than you could!

In this article, I outline the 11 key steps to writing a perfect paragraph. But, this isn’t your normal ‘how to write an essay’ article. Rather, I’ll try to give you some insight into exactly what teachers look out for when they’re grading essays and figuring out what grade to give them.

You can navigate each issue below, or scroll down to read them all:

1. Paragraphs must be at least four sentences long 2. But, at most seven sentences long 3. Your paragraph must be Left-Aligned 4. You need a topic sentence 5 . Next, you need an explanation sentence 6. You need to include an example 7. You need to include citations 8. All paragraphs need to be relevant to the marking criteria 9. Only include one key idea per paragraph 10. Keep sentences short 11. Keep quotes short

Paragraph structure is one of the most important elements of getting essay writing right .

As I cover in my Ultimate Guide to Writing an Essay Plan , paragraphs are the heart and soul of your essay.

However, I find most of my students have either:

• forgotten how to write paragraphs properly,
• gotten lazy, or
• never learned it in the first place!

Paragraphs in essay writing are different from paragraphs in other written genres .

In fact, the paragraphs that you are reading now would not help your grades in an essay.

That’s because I’m writing in journalistic style, where paragraph conventions are vastly different.

For those of you coming from journalism or creative writing, you might find you need to re-learn paragraph writing if you want to write well-structured essay paragraphs to get top grades.

Below are eleven reasons your paragraphs are losing marks, and what to do about it!

Essay Paragraph Structure Rules

1. your paragraphs must be at least 4 sentences long.

In journalism and blog writing, a one-sentence paragraph is great. It’s short, to-the-point, and helps guide your reader. For essay paragraph structure, one-sentence paragraphs suck.

A one-sentence essay paragraph sends an instant signal to your teacher that you don’t have much to say on an issue.

A short paragraph signifies that you know something – but not much about it. A one-sentence paragraph lacks detail, depth and insight.

Many students come to me and ask, “what does ‘add depth’ mean?” It’s one of the most common pieces of feedback you’ll see written on the margins of your essay.

Personally, I think ‘add depth’ is bad feedback because it’s a short and vague comment. But, here’s what it means: You’ve not explained your point enough!

If you’re writing one-, two- or three-sentence essay paragraphs, you’re costing yourself marks.

Always aim for at least four sentences per paragraph in your essays.

This doesn’t mean that you should add ‘fluff’ or ‘padding’ sentences.

Make sure you don’t:

a) repeat what you said in different words, or b) write something just because you need another sentence in there.

But, you need to do some research and find something insightful to add to that two-sentence paragraph if you want to ace your essay.

Check out Points 5 and 6 for some advice on what to add to that short paragraph to add ‘depth’ to your paragraph and start moving to the top of the class.

• How to Make an Essay Longer
• How to Make an Essay Shorter

2. Your Paragraphs must not be more than 7 Sentences Long

Okay, so I just told you to aim for at least four sentences per paragraph. So, what’s the longest your paragraph should be?

Seven sentences. That’s a maximum.

So, here’s the rule:

Between four and seven sentences is the sweet spot that you need to aim for in every single paragraph.

Here’s why your paragraphs shouldn’t be longer than seven sentences:

1. It shows you can organize your thoughts. You need to show your teacher that you’ve broken up your key ideas into manageable segments of text (see point 10)

2. It makes your work easier to read.   You need your writing to be easily readable to make it easy for your teacher to give you good grades. Make your essay easy to read and you’ll get higher marks every time.

One of the most important ways you can make your work easier to read is by writing paragraphs that are less than six sentences long.

3. It prevents teacher frustration. Teachers are just like you. When they see a big block of text their eyes glaze over. They get frustrated, lost, their mind wanders … and you lose marks.

To prevent teacher frustration, you need to ensure there’s plenty of white space in your essay. It’s about showing them that the piece is clearly structured into one key idea per ‘chunk’ of text.

Often, you might find that your writing contains tautologies and other turns of phrase that can be shortened for clarity.

3. Your Paragraph must be Left-Aligned

Turn off ‘Justified’ text and: Never. Turn. It. On. Again.

Justified text is where the words are stretched out to make the paragraph look like a square. It turns the writing into a block. Don’t do it. You will lose marks, I promise you! Win the psychological game with your teacher: left-align your text.

A good essay paragraph is never ‘justified’.

I’m going to repeat this, because it’s important: to prevent your essay from looking like a big block of muddy, hard-to-read text align your text to the left margin only.

You want white space on your page – and lots of it. White space helps your reader scan through your work. It also prevents it from looking like big blocks of text.

You want your reader reading vertically as much as possible: scanning, browsing, and quickly looking through for evidence you’ve engaged with the big ideas.

The justified text doesn’t help you do that. Justified text makes your writing look like a big, lumpy block of text that your reader doesn’t want to read.

What’s wrong with Center-Aligned Text?

While I’m at it, never, ever, center-align your text either. Center-aligned text is impossible to skim-read. Your teacher wants to be able to quickly scan down the left margin to get the headline information in your paragraph.

Not many people center-align text, but it’s worth repeating: never, ever center-align your essays.

Don’t annoy your reader. Left align your text.

4. Your paragraphs must have a Topic Sentence

The first sentence of an essay paragraph is called the topic sentence. This is one of the most important sentences in the correct essay paragraph structure style.

The topic sentence should convey exactly what key idea you’re going to cover in your paragraph.

Too often, students don’t let their reader know what the key idea of the paragraph is until several sentences in.

You must show what the paragraph is about in the first sentence.

You never, ever want to keep your reader in suspense. Essays are not like creative writing. Tell them straight away what the paragraph is about. In fact, if you can, do it in the first half of the first sentence .

I’ll remind you again: make it easy to grade your work. Your teacher is reading through your work trying to determine what grade to give you. They’re probably going to mark 20 assignments in one sitting. They have no interest in storytelling or creativity. They just want to know how much you know! State what the paragraph is about immediately and move on.

Suggested: Best Words to Start a Paragraph

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing a Topic Sentence If your paragraph is about how climate change is endangering polar bears, say it immediately : “Climate change is endangering polar bears.” should be your first sentence in your paragraph. Take a look at first sentence of each of the four paragraphs above this one. You can see from the first sentence of each paragraph that the paragraphs discuss:

When editing your work, read each paragraph and try to distil what the one key idea is in your paragraph. Ensure that this key idea is mentioned in the first sentence .

(Note: if there’s more than one key idea in the paragraph, you may have a problem. See Point 9 below .)

The topic sentence is the most important sentence for getting your essay paragraph structure right. So, get your topic sentences right and you’re on the right track to a good essay paragraph.

5. You need an Explanation Sentence

All topic sentences need a follow-up explanation. The very first point on this page was that too often students write paragraphs that are too short. To add what is called ‘depth’ to a paragraph, you can come up with two types of follow-up sentences: explanations and examples.

Let’s take explanation sentences first.

Explanation sentences give additional detail. They often provide one of the following services:

Let’s go back to our example of a paragraph on Climate change endangering polar bears. If your topic sentence is “Climate change is endangering polar bears.”, then your follow-up explanation sentence is likely to explain how, why, where, or when. You could say:

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing Explanation Sentences 1. How: “The warming atmosphere is melting the polar ice caps.” 2. Why: “The polar bears’ habitats are shrinking every single year.” 3. Where: “This is happening in the Antarctic ice caps near Greenland.” 4. When: “Scientists first noticed the ice caps were shrinking in 1978.”

You don’t have to provide all four of these options each time.

But, if you’re struggling to think of what to add to your paragraph to add depth, consider one of these four options for a good quality explanation sentence.

>>>RELATED ARTICLE: SHOULD YOU USE RHETORICAL QUESTIONS IN ESSAYS ?

6. Your need to Include an Example

Examples matter! They add detail. They also help to show that you genuinely understand the issue. They show that you don’t just understand a concept in the abstract; you also understand how things work in real life.

Example sentences have the added benefit of personalising an issue. For example, after saying “Polar bears’ habitats are shrinking”, you could note specific habitats, facts and figures, or even a specific story about a bear who was impacted.

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: Writing an ‘Example’ Sentence “For example, 770,000 square miles of Arctic Sea Ice has melted in the past four decades, leading Polar Bear populations to dwindle ( National Geographic, 2018 )

In fact, one of the most effective politicians of our times – Barrack Obama – was an expert at this technique. He would often provide examples of people who got sick because they didn’t have healthcare to sell Obamacare.

What effect did this have? It showed the real-world impact of his ideas. It humanised him, and got him elected president – twice!

Be like Obama. Provide examples. Often.

7. All Paragraphs need Citations

Provide a reference to an academic source in every single body paragraph in the essay. The only two paragraphs where you don’t need a reference is the introduction and conclusion .

Let me repeat: Paragraphs need at least one reference to a quality scholarly source .

Let me go even further:

Students who get the best marks provide two references to two different academic sources in every paragraph.

Two references in a paragraph show you’ve read widely, cross-checked your sources, and given the paragraph real thought.

It’s really important that these references link to academic sources, not random websites, blogs or YouTube videos. Check out our Seven Best types of Sources to Cite in Essays post to get advice on what sources to cite. Number 6 w ill surprise you!

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: In-Text Referencing in Paragraphs Usually, in-text referencing takes the format: (Author, YEAR), but check your school’s referencing formatting requirements carefully. The ‘Author’ section is the author’s last name only. Not their initials. Not their first name. Just their last name . My name is Chris Drew. First name Chris, last name Drew. If you were going to reference an academic article I wrote in 2019, you would reference it like this: (Drew, 2019).

Where do you place those two references?

Place the first reference at the end of the first half of the paragraph. Place the second reference at the end of the second half of the paragraph.

This spreads the references out and makes it look like all the points throughout the paragraph are backed up by your sources. The goal is to make it look like you’ve reference regularly when your teacher scans through your work.

Remember, teachers can look out for signposts that indicate you’ve followed academic conventions and mentioned the right key ideas.

Spreading your referencing through the paragraph helps to make it look like you’ve followed the academic convention of referencing sources regularly.

Here are some examples of how to reference twice in a paragraph:

• If your paragraph was six sentences long, you would place your first reference at the end of the third sentence and your second reference at the end of the sixth sentence.
• If your paragraph was five sentences long, I would recommend placing one at the end of the second sentence and one at the end of the fifth sentence.

You’ve just read one of the key secrets to winning top marks.

8. Every Paragraph must be relevant to the Marking Criteria

Every paragraph must win you marks. When you’re editing your work, check through the piece to see if every paragraph is relevant to the marking criteria.

For the British: In the British university system (I’m including Australia and New Zealand here – I’ve taught at universities in all three countries), you’ll usually have a ‘marking criteria’. It’s usually a list of between two and six key learning outcomes your teacher needs to use to come up with your score. Sometimes it’s called a:

• Marking criteria
• Marking rubric
• (Key) learning outcome
• Indicative content

Check your assignment guidance to see if this is present. If so, use this list of learning outcomes to guide what you write. If your paragraphs are irrelevant to these key points, delete the paragraph .

Paragraphs that don’t link to the marking criteria are pointless. They won’t win you marks.

For the Americans: If you don’t have a marking criteria / rubric / outcomes list, you’ll need to stick closely to the essay question or topic. This goes out to those of you in the North American system. North America (including USA and Canada here) is often less structured and the professor might just give you a topic to base your essay on.

If all you’ve got is the essay question / topic, go through each paragraph and make sure each paragraph is relevant to the topic.

For example, if your essay question / topic is on “The Effects of Climate Change on Polar Bears”,

• Don’t talk about anything that doesn’t have some connection to climate change and polar bears;
• Don’t talk about the environmental impact of oil spills in the Gulf of Carpentaria;
• Don’t talk about black bear habitats in British Columbia.
• Do talk about the effects of climate change on polar bears (and relevant related topics) in every single paragraph .

You may think ‘stay relevant’ is obvious advice, but at least 20% of all essays I mark go off on tangents and waste words.

Stay on topic in Every. Single. Paragraph. If you want to learn more about how to stay on topic, check out our essay planning guide .

9. Only have one Key Idea per Paragraph

One key idea for each paragraph. One key idea for each paragraph. One key idea for each paragraph.

Don’t forget!

Too often, a student starts a paragraph talking about one thing and ends it talking about something totally different. Don’t be that student.

To ensure you’re focussing on one key idea in your paragraph, make sure you know what that key idea is. It should be mentioned in your topic sentence (see Point 3 ). Every other sentence in the paragraph adds depth to that one key idea.

If you’ve got sentences in your paragraph that are not relevant to the key idea in the paragraph, they don’t fit. They belong in another paragraph.

Go through all your paragraphs when editing your work and check to see if you’ve veered away from your paragraph’s key idea. If so, you might have two or even three key ideas in the one paragraph.

You’re going to have to get those additional key ideas, rip them out, and give them paragraphs of their own.

If you have more than one key idea in a paragraph you will lose marks. I promise you that.

The paragraphs will be too hard to read, your reader will get bogged down reading rather than scanning, and you’ll have lost grades.

10. Keep Sentences Short

If a sentence is too long it gets confusing. When the sentence is confusing, your reader will stop reading your work. They will stop reading the paragraph and move to the next one. They’ll have given up on your paragraph.

Short, snappy sentences are best.

Shorter sentences are easier to read and they make more sense. Too often, students think they have to use big, long, academic words to get the best marks. Wrong. Aim for clarity in every sentence in the paragraph. Your teacher will thank you for it.

The students who get the best marks write clear, short sentences.

When editing your draft, go through your essay and see if you can shorten your longest five sentences.

(To learn more about how to write the best quality sentences, see our page on Seven ways to Write Amazing Sentences .)

11. Keep Quotes Short

Eighty percent of university teachers hate quotes. That’s not an official figure. It’s my guestimate based on my many interactions in faculty lounges. Twenty percent don’t mind them, but chances are your teacher is one of the eight out of ten who hate quotes.

Teachers tend to be turned off by quotes because it makes it look like you don’t know how to say something on your own words.

Now that I’ve warned you, here’s how to use quotes properly:

Ideal Essay Paragraph Structure Example: How To Use Quotes in University-Level Essay Paragraphs 1. Your quote should be less than one sentence long. 2. Your quote should be less than one sentence long. 3. You should never start a sentence with a quote. 4. You should never end a paragraph with a quote. 5 . You should never use more than five quotes per essay. 6. Your quote should never be longer than one line in a paragraph.

The minute your teacher sees that your quote takes up a large chunk of your paragraph, you’ll have lost marks.

Your teacher will circle the quote, write a snarky comment in the margin, and not even bother to give you points for the key idea in the paragraph.

Avoid quotes, but if you really want to use them, follow those five rules above.

I’ve also provided additional pages outlining Seven tips on how to use Quotes if you want to delve deeper into how, when and where to use quotes in essays. Be warned: quoting in essays is harder than you thought.

Follow the advice above and you’ll be well on your way to getting top marks at university.

Writing essay paragraphs that are well structured takes time and practice. Don’t be too hard on yourself and keep on trying!

Below is a summary of our 11 key mistakes for structuring essay paragraphs and tips on how to avoid them.

I’ve also provided an easy-to-share infographic below that you can share on your favorite social networking site. Please share it if this article has helped you out!

11 Biggest Essay Paragraph Structure Mistakes you’re probably Making

1.  Your paragraphs are too short 2.  Your paragraphs are too long 3.  Your paragraph alignment is ‘Justified’ 4.  Your paragraphs are missing a topic sentence 5 .  Your paragraphs are missing an explanation sentence 6.  Your paragraphs are missing an example 7.  Your paragraphs are missing references 8.  Your paragraphs are not relevant to the marking criteria 9.  You’re trying to fit too many ideas into the one paragraph 10.  Your sentences are too long 11.  Your quotes are too long

• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 Number Games for Kids (Free and Easy)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 Word Games for Kids (Free and Easy)
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 25 Outdoor Games for Kids
• Chris Drew (PhD) https://helpfulprofessor.com/author/chris-drew-phd-2/ 50 Incentives to Give to Students

4 thoughts on “11 Rules for Essay Paragraph Structure (with Examples)”

Hello there. I noticed that throughout this article on Essay Writing, you keep on saying that the teacher won’t have time to go through the entire essay. Don’t you think this is a bit discouraging that with all the hard work and time put into your writing, to know that the teacher will not read through the entire paper?

Hi Clarence,

Thanks so much for your comment! I love to hear from readers on their thoughts.

Yes, I agree that it’s incredibly disheartening.

But, I also think students would appreciate hearing the truth.

Behind closed doors many / most university teachers are very open about the fact they ‘only have time to skim-read papers’. They regularly bring this up during heated faculty meetings about contract negotiations! I.e. in one university I worked at, we were allocated 45 minutes per 10,000 words – that’s just over 4 minutes per 1,000 word essay, and that’d include writing the feedback, too!

If students know the truth, they can better write their essays in a way that will get across the key points even from a ‘skim-read’.

I hope to write candidly on this website – i.e. some of this info will never be written on university blogs because universities want to hide these unfortunate truths from students.

Thanks so much for stopping by!

Regards, Chris

This is wonderful and helpful, all I say is thank you very much. Because I learned a lot from this site, own by chris thank you Sir.

Thank you. This helped a lot.

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Why We Should Care That Tariffs Are Taxes

Tariffs have the same stifling effect on the economy as any other tax.

In a recent American Compass article, Michael Lind asks “ So What If Tariffs Are Taxes ?” In doing so, he defends the position of so many on the left and right that tariffs are good economics, good policy, and essential to reverse the damage allegedly caused by zealously pursuing trade liberalization. Unfortunately, he gets both his history and economics wrong. Because of these errors, his policy recommendations are misguided and reflect an antiquated, pre-Adam Smith view of the world that promotes mercantilism, cronyism, and a “beggar thy neighbor” approach to international relations. These policies have been tried before, with the same result each time: the impoverishment of the nation and its people.

Lind’s call for “Sticks, Not Carrots” belies a subtle truth: he believes it is the federal government’s responsibility to make sure that Americans are well-off. This starkly contrasts the historical position of the American Right up until the 2010s, not to mention a core principle of the American Founding: our well-being is primarily our personal responsibility.

The carrots Lind wants us to cease using are “countervailing subsidies” in response to China’s “subsidized dumping of goods.” Were his call to end subsidies to US firms the end of his policy proposals, Lind would have a leg to stand on. Instead, he advocates the use of sticks—via tariffs—to punish American consumers for purchasing foreign-made products. This is not just bad policy. It is economic lunacy.

The fundamental problem for Lind is that the respective track records for trade liberalization and tariffs are in. Trade liberalization works. Tariffs don’t.

To support his critique of trade liberalization, Lind argues, “In the nineteenth century, the US pursued a successful import substitution strategy that transformed it from an agrarian to an industrial economy with the help of tariffs that kept out manufactured goods from Britain and other more advanced economies, reserving America’s growing home market for American-made goods.”

Unfortunately, Lind provides no sources to support this claim. But there are plenty of sources arguing the opposite. Samuel Gregg, for example, offers one such critique. Douglas A. Irwin has likewise explored the question empirically , and finds that “evidence in favor of the import substitution view [of American economic history] is weak.”

The implications of Lind’s mistaken grasp of American economic history are two-fold. First, it misleads people into believing that the failure to “protect” American firms from foreign competition has led to the manufacturing declines we see today. The second is that many will mistakenly believe that applying tariffs and industrial policy to American industries will somehow re-shore manufacturing jobs, boost pre-tax wages, and bring about more economic equality.

Both claims are empirically false and belie a failure to grasp even the basics of Econ 101.

First, about 90 percent of the job losses during the China Shock from 2000–12, which saw cheap Chinese imports flood the US market, were the result of technological change , not imports. This made manufacturing workers more productive, not less. For example, according to the same study, automotive workers are today almost twice as productive as they were in 2010.

Yes, it takes fewer people to produce a car today thanks to technological progress compared to 2000. But Lind fails to recognize that the car industry will only employ the same number of people that it did in 2000 if consumers wish to purchase commensurately more cars. The same can be said of all industries: when workers are more productive, there will be fewer workers employed in that industry over time unless sales also increase.

Lind also ignores the fact that these changes have meant that many people who would otherwise be employed in the automotive sector are now more usefully employed serving their fellow Americans in other industries. It is that higher productivity that translates into higher wages, not increased “power of workers to bargain with employers,” as Lind claims.

Turning to Lind’s second claim: protecting American industries through tariffs has not achieved its stated goals. The 2019 Economic Report of the President , written by President Trump’s own Council of Economic Advisors, confirms that the 2018 tariffs on steel and aluminum did not lead to any beneficial changes in Chinese trade policy. More damaging, a 2019 Federal Reserve analysis illustrates that the tariffs imposed under Trump’s leadership were “associated with relative reductions in manufacturing employment and relative increases in producer prices.”

Why is this? While a few jobs may have been saved in the steel and aluminum -producing sectors, these were “completely offset” by job losses in the steel and aluminum- using sectors. Tariffs raise prices and, in response to higher prices, firms in the industries using the now more expensive materials cut costs in the form of laying off workers.

In other words, tariffs cause higher prices, particularly for low-income households, and reduce employment in the very sector that tariffs are supposed to protect: manufacturing. This makes tariffs a regressive tax in that the burden falls disproportionately on low-income households. Lind chides scholars who make this claim, almost as if they are grasping at straws, clinging desperately to an outdated ideology. To refute this, he says, “One answer to this critique is technical … the other is philosophical.” 

His technical critique is simple: “What matters is the progressivity of the federal-state-local tax system as a whole, not ensuring that every tax at every level is progressive.” This is immediately followed by a discussion of changes that could be made to reduce the overall regressivity of the federal-state-local tax code, ignoring the argument that tariffs are regressive.

His philosophical critique of the claim that tariffs are regressive is even more absurd and contradicts his technical critique. He writes, “But a philosophical issue also arises. The tax code’s progressivity is not an end unto itself , it is a compensatory mechanism for addressing a distribution of gains in the economy that the nation regards as inequitable” (emphasis added). The reader is left as confused as Lind is in economics. Does progressivity of the tax code matter or does it not?

Tariffs cause higher prices, particularly for low-income households, and reduce employment in the very sector that tariffs are supposed to protect.

Because he brings up the argument about tariffs being regressive but never actually argues against it, the only conclusion can be that Lind accepts that this is true but thinks, as he does about tariffs being taxes, “So What?”

Since tariffs are regressive in their application, which there is ample evidence that they are, then removing them would also be regressive and disproportionately benefit low-income families. If Lind is serious about “increasing pre-tax wages” and “reducing inequality,” then he needs to look at reducing barriers to trade, not erecting new ones.

Another problem with Lind’s argument is his misleading use of several sets of statistics and various reports. For instance, Lind points us to a VoxEU study which states that “China is now the world’s sole manufacturing superpower. … Its production exceeds that of the next nine largest manufacturers combined.” This is true. If we compare the manufacturing output of China and the US, for example, we do find that Chinese output is about triple of US output.

This sounds alarming until one realizes that China has about six times as many people as the United States. If we exclude India, China’s population is so large that it exceeds the combined populations of the remaining eight countries included in the statistic. In other words, China’s impressive manufacturing output is entirely driven by their high population, not their economic prowess.

Likewise, a Peterson Foundation article to which Lind points out states that “tax expenditures cost $1.8 trillion” in 2023 and that “tax appropriations are the functional equivalent of direct appropriations.”

There are many problems with Lind’s use of this article. First, the very name “tax expenditures” is itself pejorative and misleading, even if it is widely used. In the article, the Peterson Foundation uses the example of the mortgage interest deduction as a “tax expenditure.” For anyone who owns a home, the mortgage interest deduction is a wonderful tax advantage. Were this law to be repealed, the tax bills of homeowners would indeed increase. But despite Lind and the Peterson Foundation claiming otherwise, this is not the same as the federal government giving homeowners money. That would be known as a “post-tax subsidy.” The logical conclusion of Lind’s and the Peterson Foundation’s arguments is tantamount to saying that the federal government is the actual proper owner of all of our income, with taxpayers enjoying whatever the government deems appropriate to give back to us.

As a definitional matter, taxes are a revenue source for governments. “Tax expenditures,” according to the Peterson Foundation, “come in a variety of forms including … tax exclusions, tax exemptions, tax deductions, and tax credits.” Calling these “expenditures” is as misleading as claiming that reducing government spending is equivalent to increasing tax revenue.

Second, the word “functional” is doing more work than Lind realizes. While taxing someone, say, $100 less might, under certain conditions, be functionally the same as giving them a $100 subsidy, the two reflect vastly different characteristics.

Allowing the private sector to keep more of its pre-tax dollars through so-called “tax expenditures” represents a form of humility. It amounts to a government saying, “We don’t know how to use these dollars better than the private sector.” 

Conversely, granting post-tax subsidies reflects arrogance. It is the federal government using dollars that it has previously taxed and deciding, through the political process, that its use of the money is better than what the private sector would have done with them.

This is illustrated by the track records of governments that tax too much and attempt to steer society toward specific economic goals. Generally, they produce less prosperous and less dynamic economies. Government planning simply cannot replicate the ways free prices in a free market allow businesses to deliver the goods that people want at a cost they can afford.

Because of this, “tax expenditures” are not the same thing as “direct appropriations.” If anything, we should expand the use of so-called tax expenditures and allow private companies to keep more of the money they earn, not less.

All of this confirms one thing: Lind’s dismissive, “So What?” about tariffs being taxes reflects a shallow grasp of basic economics. Taxes do not promote economic growth. They inhibit it. And given that tariffs are taxes, they have the same effect on the economy as any other tax. In short, we need to reduce tariffs and promote trade liberalization, not impose new costs on domestic consumers and producers.

Doing so will help further increase worker productivity, which is the true source of the higher pre-tax wages Lind wishes to promote. What’s more, because tariffs are regressive in application, removing tariffs would also be regressive and disproportionately benefit low-income households, thereby reducing inequality. Removing barriers to trade, not erecting new ones, is the best way forward.

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• 20 min read

The Dyatlov Pass Incident

What is the Dyatlov Pass incident? Well, as we’ll find out, it was when nine Russian hikers died in the northern Ural Mountains between February 1st & 2nd in 1959, under supposed uncertain circumstances. The experienced trekking group, who were all from the Ural Polytechnical Institute , had established a camp on the slopes of Kholat Syakhl , in an area now named in honour of the group's leader, Igor Dyatlov. During the night, something caused them to cut their way out of their tent and attempt to flee the campsite while not being dressed for the heavy ass snowfall and subzero temperatures. Subzero was one of my favorite Mortal Kombat characters… god I loved that game.

After the group's bodies were grusomly discovered, an investigation by Soviet authorities determined that six of them had died from hypothermia while the other three had been killed by physical trauma . One victim actually had major skull damage, two had severe chest trauma, and another had a small crack in the skull . Was all of this caused by an avalanche or from something nefarious? Four of the bodies were found lying in running water in a creek, and three of these had soft tissue damage of the head and face – two of the bodies were missing their eyes, one was missing its tongue, and one was missing its eyebrows. It’s eyebrows! The Soviet investigation concluded that a "compelling natural force" had caused the untimely deaths. Numerous theories have been brought forward to account for the unexplained deaths, including animal attacks, hypothermia, avalanche , katabatic winds , infrasound -induced panic, military involvement, or some combination of these. We’ll discuss all these in further detail later on.

Recently, Russia has opened a new investigation into the Dyatlov incident in 2019, and its conclusions were presented in July 2020: Simply put, they believe that an avalanche had led to the deaths of the hikers. Survivors of the avalanche had been forced to suddenly leave their camp in low visibility conditions with inadequate clothing, and had died of hypothermia. Andrey Kuryakov, deputy head of the regional prosecutor's office, said: "It was a heroic struggle. There was no panic. But they had no chance to save themselves under the circumstances." A study published in 2021 suggested that a type of avalanche known as a slab avalanche could explain some of the injuries. However, we’ll run through everything and you can come to your own conclusion.

Ok, let’s dive into the details of the event.

In 1959, the group was formed for a skiing expedition across the northern Urals in Sverdlovsk Oblast, Soviet Union. According to Prosecutor Tempalov, documents that were found in the tent of the expedition suggest that the expedition was named for the 21st Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, and was possibly dispatched by the local Komsomol organisation.Which was a political youth organization in the Soviet Union , which was sometimes described as the youth division of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . Igor Dyatlov, a 23-year-old radio engineering student at the Ural Polytechnical Institute; now Ural Federal University, was the leader who assembled a group of nine others for the trip, most of whom were fellow students and peers at the university.Ok, so they were mostly students. Each member of the group, which consisted of eight men and two women, was an experienced Grade II-hiker with ski tour experience, and would be receiving Grade III certification upon their return. So, this trekk was like a test. I hated tests. Especially ones that could KILL YOU! At the time, this was the highest certification available in the Soviet Union, and required candidates to traverse 190 mi. The route was designed by Igor Dyatlov's group in order to reach the far northern regions of Sverdlovsk Oblast and the upper-streams of the Lozva river. The route was approved by the Sverdlovsk city route commission, which was a division of the Sverdlovsk Committee of Physical Culture and Sport. They approved of and confirmed the group of 10 people on January 8th, 1959. The goal of the expedition was to reach Otorten, a mountain(6.2 mi north of the site where the incident took place. This path, taken in February, was estimated as a Category III, the most difficult time to traverse.

On January 23rd, 1959 the Dyatlov group was issued their route book which listed their course as following the No.5 trail. At that time, the Sverdlovsk City Committee of Physical Culture and Sport listed approval for 11 people. The 11th person was listed as Semyon Zolotaryov who was previously certified to go with another expedition of similar difficulty (that was the Sogrin expedition group). The Dyatlov group left the Sverdlovsk city (today called Yekaterinburg) on the same day they received the route book.

The members of the group were Igor Alekseyevich Dyatlov, Yuri Nikolayevich Doroshenko, Lyudmila Alexandrovna Dubinina, Georgiy (Yuri) Alexeyevich Krivonischenko, Alexander Sergeyevich Kolevatov, Zinaida Alekseevna Kolmogorova, Rustem Vladimirovich Slobodin, Nikolai Vladimirovich Thibeaux-Brignolles, Semyon (Alexander) Alekseevich Zolotaryov, and Yuri Yefimovich Yudin

The group arrived by train at Ivdel , a town at the centre of the northern province of Sverdlovsk Oblast in the early morning hours of January 25, 1959. They took a truck to Vizhai, a little village that is the last inhabited settlement to the north. As of 2010, only 207 really, really fucking cold people lived there. While spending the night in Vizhai, and probably freezing their baguettes off, the skiers purchased and ate loaves of bread to keep their energy levels up for the following day's hike.

On January 27, they began their trek toward Gora Otorten. On January 28, one member, Yuri Yudin, who suffered from several health ailments (including rheumatism and a congenital heart defect ) turned back due to knee and joint pain that made him unable to continue the hike. The remaining nine hikers continued the trek. Ok, my first question with this is, why in the fuck was that guy there, to begin with??

Diaries and cameras found around their last campsite made it possible to track the group's route up to the day before the incident. On January 31st, the group arrived at the edge of a highland area and began to prepare for climbing. In a wooded valley, they rounded up surplus food and equipment that they would use for the trip back. The next day, the hikers started to move through the pass. It seems they planned to get over the pass and make camp for the next night on the opposite side, but because of worsening weather conditions—like snowstorms, decreasing visibility... large piles of yeti shit—they lost their direction and headed west, toward the top of Kholat Syakhl . When they realised their mistake, the group decided to set up camp there on the slope of the mountain, rather than move almost a mile downhill to a forested area that would have offered some shelter from the weather. Yudin, the debilitated goofball that shouldn’t have even been there speculated, "Dyatlov probably did not want to lose the altitude they had gained, or he decided to practice camping on the mountain slope."

Before leaving, Captain Dyatlov had agreed he would send a telegram to their sports club as soon as the group returned to teeny, tiny Vizhai. It was expected that this would happen no later than February 12th, but Dyatlov had told Yudin, before he departed from the group, that he expected it to actually be longer. When the 12th passed and no messages had been received, there was no immediate reaction because, ya know… fuck it. Just kidding, these types of delays were actually common with such expeditions. On February 20th, the travellers' worried relatives demanded a rescue operation and the head of the institute sent the first rescue groups, consisting of volunteer students and teachers. Later, the army and militsiya forces (aka the Soviet police) became involved, with planes and helicopters ordered to join in on the search party.

On February 26th, the searchers found the group's abandoned and super fucked up tent on Kholat Syakhl . The campsite undoubtedly baffled the search party. Mikhail Sharavin, the student who found the tent, said “HOLY SHIT! THIS PLACE IS FUCKED UP!”... No, that’s not true. He actually said, "the tent was half torn down and covered with snow. It was empty, and all the group's belongings and shoes had been left behind." Investigators said the tent had been cut open from inside. Which seems like a serious and quick escape route was needed. Nine sets of footprints, left by people wearing only socks or a single shoe or even barefoot, could actually be followed, leading down to the edge of a nearby wood, on the opposite side of the pass, about a mile to the north-east. After approximately 1,600 ft, these tracks were covered with snow. At the forest's edge, under a large Siberian pine , the searchers found the visible remains of a small fire. There were the first two bodies, those of Krivonischenko and Doroshenko, shoeless and dressed only in their tighty whiteys. The branches on the tree were broken up to five meters high, suggesting that one of the skiers had climbed up to look for something, maybe the camp. Between the pine and the camp, the searchers found three more corpses: Dyatlov, Kolmogorova, and Slobodin, who died in poses suggesting that they were attempting to return to the tent. They were found at distances of 980, 1,570, and 2,070 ft from the tree.

Finding the remaining four travellers took more than two frigging months. They were finally found on May 4th under 13 ft of snow in a ravine 246 ft further into the woods from the pine tree. Three of the four were better dressed than the others, and there were signs that some clothing of those who had died first had been taken off of their corpses for use by the others. Dubinina was wearing Krivonishenko's burned, torn trousers, and her left foot and shin were wrapped in a torn jacket.

Let’s get into the investigation. A legal inquest started immediately after the first five bodies were found. A medical examination found no injuries that might have led to their deaths, and it was concluded that they had all died of hypothermia .Which would make sense because it was colder than a polar bear’s butthole. Slobodin had a small crack in his skull, but it was not thought to be a fatal wound.

An examination of the four bodies found in May shifted the overall narrative of what they initially believed transpired. Three of the hikers had fatal injuries: Thibeaux-Brignolles had major skull damage, and Dubinina and Zolotaryov had major chest fractures. According to Boris Vozrozhdenny, the force required to cause such damage would have been extremely high, comparable to that of a car crash.Also, the bodies had no external wounds associated with the bone fractures, as if they had been subjected to a high level of pressure.

All four bodies found at the bottom of the creek in a running stream of water had soft tissue damage to their head and face. For example, Dubinina was missing her tongue, eyes, part of the lips, as well as facial tissue and a fragment of her skullbone, while Zolotaryov was missing his friggin eyeballs, and Aleksander Kolevatov his eyebrows. V. A. Vozrozhdenny, the forensic expert performing the post-mortem examination , judged that these injuries happened after they had died, due to the location of the bodies in a stream.

At first, there was speculation that the indigenous Mansi people , who were just simple reindeer herders local to the area, had attacked and murdered the group for making fun of Rudolph. Several Mansi were interrogated, but the investigation indicated that the nature of the deaths did not support this hypothesis: only the hikers' footprints were visible, and they showed no sign of hand-to-hand struggle. Oh, I was kidding about the Rudolph thing. They thought they attacked the hikers for being on their land.

Although the temperature was very low, around −13 to −22 °F with a storm blowing, the dead were only partially dressed, as I mentioned.

Journalists reporting on the available parts of the inquest files claim that it states:

Six of the group members died of hypothermia and three of fatal injuries.

There were no indications of other people nearby on Kholat Syakhl apart from the nine travellers.

The tent had been ripped open from within.

The victims had died six to eight hours after their last meal.

Traces from the camp showed that all group members left the campsite of their own accord, on foot.

Some levels of radiation were found on one victim's clothing.

To dispel the theory of an attack by the indigenous Mansi people, Vozrozhdenny stated that the fatal injuries of the three bodies could not have been caused by human beings, "because the force of the blows had been too strong and no soft tissue had been damaged".

Released documents contained no information about the condition of the skiers' internal organs.

And most obviously, There were no survivors.

At the time, the official conclusion was that the group members had died because of a compelling natural force.The inquest officially ceased in May 1959 as a result of the absence of a guilty party. The files were sent to a secret archive.

In 1997, it was revealed that the negatives from Krivonischenko's camera were kept in the private archive of one of the investigators, Lev Ivanov. The film material was donated by Ivanov's daughter to the Dyatlov Foundation. The diaries of the hiking party fell into Russia's public domain in 2009.

On April 12th, 2018, Zolotarev's remains were exhumed on the initiative of journalists of the Russian tabloid newspaper Komsomolskaya Pravda . Contradictory results were obtained: one of the experts said that the character of the injuries resembled a person knocked down by a car, and the DNA analysis did not reveal any similarity to the DNA of living relatives. In addition, it turned out that Zolotarev's name was not on the list of those buried at the Ivanovskoye cemetery. Nevertheless, the reconstruction of the face from the exhumed skull matched postwar photographs of Zolotarev, although journalists expressed suspicions that another person was hiding under Zolotarev's name after World War II .

In February 2019, Russian authorities reopened the investigation into the incident, yet again, although only three possible explanations were being considered: an avalanche, a slab avalanche , or a hurricane . The possibility of a crime had been discounted.

Other reports brought about a whole bunch of additional speculation.

Twelve-year-old Yury Kuntsevich, who later became the head of the Yekaterinburg-based Dyatlov Foundation, attended five of the hikers' funerals. He recalled that their skin had a "deep brown tan".

Another group of hikers 31 mi south of the incident reported that they saw strange orange spheres in the sky to the north on the night of the incident.Similar spheres were observed in Ivdel and other areas continually during the period from February to March of 1959, by various independent witnesses (including the meteorology service and the military). These sightings were not noted in the 1959 investigation, and the various witnesses came forward years later.

After the initial investigation,

Anatoly Gushchin summarized his research in the book The Price of State Secrets Is Nine Lives. Some researchers criticised the work for its concentration on the speculative theory of a Soviet secret weapon experiment, but its publication led to public discussion, stimulated by interest in the paranormal .It is true that many of those who had remained silent for thirty years reported new facts about the accident. One of them was the former police officer, Lev Ivanov, who led the official inquest in 1959. In 1990, he published an article that included his admission that the investigation team had no rational explanation for the incident. He also stated that, after his team reported that they had seen flying spheres, he then received direct orders from high-ranking regional officials to dismiss this claim.

In 2000, a regional television company produced the documentary film The Mystery of Dyatlov Pass . With the help of the film crew, a Yekaterinburg writer, Anna Matveyeva, published a docudrama of the same name. A large part of the book includes broad quotations from the official case, diaries of victims, interviews with searchers and other documentaries collected by the film-makers. The narrative line of the book details the everyday life and thoughts of a modern woman (an alter ego of the author herself, which is super weird) who attempts to resolve the case. Despite its fictional narrative, Matveyeva's book remains the largest source of documentary materials ever made available to the public regarding the incident. Also, the pages of the case files and other documentaries (in photocopies and transcripts) are gradually being published on a web forum for nerds just like you and i!.

The Dyatlov Foundation was founded in 1999 at Yekaterinburg, with the help of Ural State Technical University, led by Yuri Kuntsevitch. The foundation's stated aim is to continue investigation of the case and to maintain the Dyatlov Museum to preserve the memory of the dead hikers. On July 1st 2016, a memorial plaque was inaugurated in Solikamsk in Ural's Perm Region, dedicated to Yuri Yudin (the dude who pussed out and is the sole survivor of the expedition group), who died in 2013.

Now, let’s go over some of the theories of what actually took place at the pass.

On July 11 2020, Andrey Kuryakov, deputy head of the Urals Federal District directorate of the Prosecutor-General 's Office, announced an avalanche to be the "official cause of death" for the Dyatlov group in 1959. Later independent computer simulation and analysis by Swiss researchers also suggest avalanche as the cause.

Reviewing the sensationalist " Yeti " hypothesis , American skeptic author Benjamin Radford suggests an avalanche as more plausible:

“that the group woke up in a panic (...) and cut their way out the tent either because an avalanche had covered the entrance to their tent or because they were scared that an avalanche was imminent (...) (better to have a potentially repairable slit in a tent than risk being buried alive in it under tons of snow). They were poorly clothed because they had been sleeping, and ran to the safety of the nearby woods where trees would help slow oncoming snow. In the darkness of night, they got separated into two or three groups; one group made a fire (hence the burned hands) while the others tried to return to the tent to recover their clothing since the danger had passed. But it was too cold, and they all froze to death before they could locate their tent in the darkness. At some point, some of the clothes may have been recovered or swapped from the dead, but at any rate, the group of four whose bodies was most severely damaged were caught in an avalanche and buried under 4 meters (13 ft) of snow (more than enough to account for the 'compelling natural force' the medical examiner described). Dubinina's tongue was likely removed by scavengers and ordinary predation.”

Evidence contradicting the avalanche theory includes:

The location of the incident did not have any obvious signs of an avalanche having taken place. An avalanche would have left certain patterns and debris distributed over a wide area. The bodies found within a month of the event were covered with a very shallow layer of snow and, had there been an avalanche of sufficient strength to sweep away the second party, these bodies would have been swept away as well; this would have caused more serious and different injuries in the process and would have damaged the tree line.

Over 100 expeditions to the region had been held since the incident, and none of them ever reported conditions that might create an avalanche. A study of the area using up-to-date terrain-related physics revealed that the location was entirely unlikely for such an avalanche to have occurred. The "dangerous conditions" found in another nearby area (which had significantly steeper slopes and cornices) were observed in April and May when the snowfalls of winter were melting. During February, when the incident occurred, there were no such conditions.

An analysis of the terrain and the slope showed that even if there could have been a very specific avalanche that found its way into the area, its path would have gone past the tent. The tent had collapsed from the side but not in a horizontal direction.

Dyatlov was an experienced skier and the much older Zolotaryov was studying for his Masters Certificate in ski instruction and mountain hiking. Neither of these two men would have been likely to camp anywhere in the path of a potential avalanche.

Footprint patterns leading away from the tent were inconsistent with someone, let alone a group of nine people, running in panic from either real or imagined danger. All the footprints leading away from the tent and towards the woods were consistent with individuals who were walking at a normal pace.

Repeated 2015 investigation [ edit ]

A review of the 1959 investigation's evidence completed in 2015–2019 by experienced investigators from the Investigative Committee of the Russian Federation (ICRF) on request of the families confirmed the avalanche with several important details added. First of all, the ICRF investigators (one of them an experienced alpinist ) confirmed that the weather on the night of the tragedy was very harsh, with wind speeds up to hurricane force,(45–67 mph, a snowstorm and temperatures reaching −40 °C. These factors weren't considered by the 1959 investigators who arrived at the scene of the accident three weeks later when the weather had much improved and any remains of the snow slide had settled and been covered with fresh snowfall. The harsh weather at the same time played a critical role in the events of the tragic night, which have been reconstructed as follows:

On 1 February the group arrives at the Kholat Syakhl mountain and erects a large, 9-person tent on an open slope, without any natural barriers such as forests. On the day and a few preceding days, a heavy snowfall continued, with strong wind and frost.

The group traversing the slope and digging a tent site into the snow weakens the snow base. During the night the snowfield above the tent starts to slide down slowly under the weight of the new snow, gradually pushing on the tent fabric, starting from the entrance. The group wakes up and starts evacuation in panic, with only some able to put on warm clothes. With the entrance blocked, the group escapes through a hole cut in the tent fabric and descends the slope to find a place perceived as safe from the avalanche only 1500 m down, at the forest border.

Because some of the members have only incomplete clothing, the group splits. Two of the group, only in their underwear and pajamas, were found at the Siberian pine tree, near a fire pit. Their bodies were found first and confirmed to have died from hypothermia.

Three hikers, including Dyatlov, attempted to climb back to the tent, possibly to get sleeping bags. They had better clothes than those at the fire pit, but still quite light and with inadequate footwear. Their bodies were found at various distances 300–600 m from the campfire, in poses suggesting that they had fallen exhausted while trying to climb in deep snow in extremely cold weather.

The remaining four, equipped with warm clothing and footwear, were trying to find or build a better camping place in the forest further down the slope. Their bodies were found 70 m from the fireplace, under several meters of snow and with traumas indicating that they had fallen into a snow hole formed above a stream. These bodies were found only after two months.

According to the ICRF investigators, the factors contributing to the tragedy were extremely bad weather and lack of experience of the group leader in such conditions, which led to the selection of a dangerous camping place. After the snow slide, another mistake of the group was to split up, rather than building a temporary camp down in the forest and trying to survive through the night. Negligence of the 1959 investigators contributed to their report creating more questions than answers and inspiring numerous conspiracy theories.

In 2021 a team of physicists and engineers led by Alexander Puzrin published a new model that demonstrated how even a relatively small slide of snow slab on the Kholat Syakhl slope could cause tent damage and injuries consistent with those suffered by Dyatlov team.

Ok, what about the Katabatic wind that I mentioned earlier?

In 2019, a Swedish-Russian expedition was made to the site, and after investigations, they proposed that a violent katabatic wind was a plausible explanation for the incident. Katabatic winds are a drainage wind, a wind that carries high-density air from a higher elevation down a slope under the force of gravity. They are somewhat rare events and can be extremely violent. They were implicated in a 1978 case at Anaris Mountain in Sweden, where eight hikers were killed and one was severely injured in the aftermath of katabatic wind. The topography of these locations were noted to be very similar according to the expedition.

A sudden katabatic wind would have made it impossible to remain in the tent, and the most rational course of action would have been for the hikers to cover the tent with snow and seek shelter behind the treeline. On top of the tent, there was also a torch left turned on, possibly left there intentionally so that the hikers could find their way back to the tent once the winds subsided. The expedition proposed that the group of hikers constructed two bivouac shelters , or just makeshift shelters, one of which collapsed, leaving four of the hikers buried with the severe injuries observed.

Another hypothesis popularised by Donnie Eichar 's 2013 book Dead Mountain is that wind going around Kholat Syakal created a Kármán vortex street , a repeating pattern of swirling vortices , caused by a process known as vortex shedding , which is responsible for the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid around blunt bodies. which can produce infrasound capable of inducing panic attacks in humans. According to Eichar's theory, the infrasound generated by the wind as it passed over the top of the Holatchahl mountain was responsible for causing physical discomfort and mental distress in the hikers. Eichar claims that, because of their panic, the hikers were driven to leave the tent by whatever means necessary, and fled down the slope. By the time they were further down the hill, they would have been out of the infrasound's path and would have regained their composure, but in the darkness would have been unable to return to their shelter. The traumatic injuries suffered by three of the victims were the result of their stumbling over the edge of a ravine in the darkness and landing on the rocks at the bottom. Hmmm...plausible.

Military tests

In another theory, the campsite fell within the path of a Soviet parachute mine exercise. This theory alleges that the hikers, woken up by loud explosions, fled the tent in a shoeless panic and found themselves unable to return for their shit. After some members froze to death attempting to endure the bombardment, others commandeered their clothing only to be fatally injured by subsequent parachute mine concussions. There are in fact records of parachute mines being tested by the Soviet military in the area around the time the hikers were out there, fuckin’ around. Parachute mines detonate while still in the air rather than upon striking the Earth's surface and produce signature injuries similar to those experienced by the hikers: heavy internal damage with relatively little external trauma. The theory coincides with reported sightings of glowing, orange orbs floating or falling in the sky within the general vicinity of the hikers and allegedly photographed by them, potentially military aircraft or descending parachute mines. (remember the camera they found? HUH? Yeah?)

This theory (among others) uses scavenging animals to explain Dubinina's injuries. Some speculate that the bodies were unnaturally manipulated, on the basis of characteristic livor mortis markings discovered during an autopsy, as well as burns to hair and skin. Photographs of the tent allegedly show that it was erected incorrectly, something the experienced hikers were unlikely to have done.

A similar theory alleges the testing of radiological weapons and is based partly on the discovery of radioactivity on some of the clothing as well as the descriptions of the bodies by relatives as having orange skin and grey hair. However, radioactive dispersal would have affected all, not just some, of the hikers and equipment, and the skin and hair discoloration can be explained by a natural process of mummification after three months of exposure to the cold and wind. The initial suppression by Soviet authorities of files describing the group's disappearance is sometimes mentioned as evidence of a cover-up, but the concealment of information about domestic incidents was standard procedure in the USSR and thus nothing strange.. And by the late 1980s, all Dyatlov files had been released in some manner.

Let’s talk about Paradoxical undressing

International Science Times proposed that the hikers' deaths were caused by hypothermia, which can induce a behavior known as paradoxical undressing in which hypothermic subjects remove their clothes in response to perceived feelings of burning warmth. It is undisputed that six of the nine hikers died of hypothermia. However, others in the group appear to have acquired additional clothing (from those who had already died), which suggests that they were of a sound enough mind to try to add layers.

Keith McCloskey, who has researched the incident for many years and has appeared in several TV documentaries on the subject, traveled to the Dyatlov Pass in 2015 with Yury Kuntsevich of the Dyatlov Foundation and a group. At the Dyatlov Pass he noted:

There were wide discrepancies in distances quoted between the two possible locations of the snow shelter where Dubinina, Kolevatov, Zolotarev, and Thibault-Brignolles were found. One location was approximately 80 to 100 meters from the pine tree where the bodies of Doroshenko and Krivonischenko were found and the other suggested location was so close to the tree that anyone in the snow shelter could have spoken to those at the tree without raising their voices to be heard. This second location also has a rock in the stream where Dubinina's body was found and is the more likely location of the two. However, the second suggested location of the two has a topography that is closer to the photos taken at the time of the search in 1959.

The location of the tent near the ridge was found to be too close to the spur of the ridge for any significant build-up of snow to cause an avalanche. Furthermore, the prevailing wind blowing over the ridge had the effect of blowing snow away from the edge of the ridge on the side where the tent was. This further reduced any build-up of snow to cause an avalanche. This aspect of the lack of snow on the top and near the top of the ridge was pointed out by Sergey Sogrin in 2010.

McCloskey also noted:

Lev Ivanov's boss, Evgeny Okishev (Deputy Head of the Investigative Department of the Sverdlovsk Oblast Prosecution Office), was still alive in 2015 and had given an interview to former Kemerovo prosecutor Leonid Proshkin in which Okishev stated that he was arranging another trip to the Pass to fully investigate the strange deaths of the last four bodies when Deputy Prosecutor General Urakov arrived from Moscow and ordered the case shut down.

Evgeny Okishev also stated in his interview with Leonid Proshkin that Klinov, head of the Sverdlovsk Prosecutor's Office, was present at the first post mortems in the morgue and spent three days there, something Okishev regarded as highly unusual and the only time, in his experience, it had happened.

Donnie Eichar , who investigated and made a documentary about the incident, evaluated several other theories that are deemed unlikely or have been discredited:

They were attacked by Mansi or other local tribesmen. The local tribesmen were known to be peaceful and there was no track evidence of anyone approaching the tent.

They were attacked and chased by animal wildlife. There were no animal tracks and the group would not have abandoned the relative security of the tent.

High winds blew one member away, and the others attempted to rescue the person. A large experienced group would not have behaved like that, and winds strong enough to blow away people with such force would have also blown away the tent.

An argument, possibly related to a romantic encounter that left some of them only partially clothed, led to a violent dispute. About this, Eichar states that it is "highly implausible. By all indications, the group was largely harmonious, and sexual tension was confined to platonic flirtation and crushes. There were no drugs present and the only alcohol was a small flask of medicinal alcohol, found intact at the scene. The group had even sworn off cigarettes for the expedition." Furthermore, a fight could not have left the massive injuries that one body had suffered.

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Sverdlovsk Oblast

Natural resources

Early history, medieval history and russian expansion, rise of the mining-metallurgical era, soviet ural, post-soviet transition, administrative divisions, demographics, settlements, ethnic groups, chairmen of the oblast duma, chairmen of the house of representatives of the legislative assembly, economy and transportation, sister relationships, notable people, external links.

Most of the oblast is spread over the eastern slopes of the Middle and North Urals and the Western Siberian Plain . Only in the southwest does the oblast stretch onto the western slopes of the Ural Mountains .

The highest mountains all rise in the North Urals, Konzhakovsky Kamen at 1,569 metres (5,148   ft) and Denezhkin Kamen at 1,492 metres (4,895   ft) . The Middle Urals is mostly hilly country with no discernible peaks; the mean elevation is closer to 300 to 500 metres (980 to 1,640   ft) above sea level. [9] Principal rivers include the Tavda , the Tura , the Chusovaya , and the Ufa , the latter two being tributaries of the Kama .

Sverdlovsk Oblast borders with, clockwise from the west, Perm Krai , the Komi Republic , Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug , Tyumen Oblast , Kurgan , and Chelyabinsk Oblasts , and the Republic of Bashkortostan .

The area is traversed by the northeasterly line of equal latitude and longitude.

Rich in natural resources, the oblast is especially famous for metals ( iron , copper , gold , platinum ), minerals ( asbestos , gemstones , talcum ), marble and coal . It is mostly here that the bulk of Russian industry was concentrated in the 18th and 19th centuries.

The area has continental climate patterns, with long cold winters (average temperatures reaching −15   °C (5   °F) to −25   °C (−13   °F) on the Western Siberian Plain) and short warm summers. Only in the southeast of the oblast do temperatures reach +30   °C (86   °F) in July.

• You can help expand this section with text translated from the corresponding article in Russian . (November 2020) Click [show] for important translation instructions. View a machine-translated version of the Russian article.

The territory of the region has been inhabited since ancient times. Numerous sites of ancient people were discovered, dating from the Paleolithic to the Iron Age. The Upper Paleolithic includes the Garinsky site on the right bank of the Sosva river near the village of Gari , the site in the Shaitansky grotto, and the site in the Bezymyanny cave (X millennium BC). [10] [11] In 1890, the 11 thousand years old (Mesolithic) Shigir idol was discovered. [12]

A settlement and a burial ground in the Kalmatsky Brod tract are located on the right bank of the Iset river and date back to the Sarmatian time (from the 3rd century BC to the 2nd century AD). They belong to the Kalmak archaeological culture. In the Kalmatsky Brod burial ground, the skeletal skulls were strongly deformed by tight bandaging in early childhood, which indicates the penetration of steppe ethnic elements to the north. [13]

There are numerous pictograms on the Koptelovsky stone, on the Oblique stone, on the Two-eyed stone, Starichnaya, Serginskaya, the rock paintings of the Bronze Age on the Neyva River, Tagil River (villages Brekhovaya, Gaevaya, Komelskaya), rock carvings on Shaitan-Kamen on the right bank of the Rezh river tied to indigenous Ural population, possibly speakers of a Ugric language . [14] [15] The Gostkovskaya Pisanitsa refers to the Middle Ages. [12]

Before the first Russian colonists arrived to the region, it was populated by various Turkic and Ugrian tribes. By the 16th century, when the Middle Urals were under influence of various Tatar khanates, the strongest local state was the Vogul Pelym principality with its center in Pelym .

The Russian conquest of the Khanate of Kazan in the 1550s paved the way further east, which was now free from Tatar depredations (see Yermak Timofeyevich ). The first surviving Russian settlements in the area date back to the late 16th   – early 17th centuries ( Verkhoturye , 1598; Turinsk , 1600; Irbit , 1633; Alapayevsk , 1639). At that time, those small trading posts were governed under Siberian administration in Tobolsk . After the 1708 administrative reform, Verkhoturye, Pelym and Turinsk became a part of the new Siberian Governorate , in 1737 their territories were assigned to the Kazan Governorate .

During the 18th century, rich resources of iron and coal made Ural an industrial heartland of Russia. After getting control over Ural mines, the Demidov family put the region in the forefront of Russian industrialization. Yekaterinburg , Nevyansk and Tagil ironworks, founded in the 1700s to 1720s, soon joined the ranks of the major producers in Europe. Throughout the 18th and 19th century those newly founded factory towns enjoyed a status of special mining-metallurgical districts allowed to have a certain rate of financial and proprietary autonomy. During the 1781 reform middle Ural finally got its own regional administration in the form of the Perm Governorate .

When in 1812 the Russian government legalized gold digging for its citizens, Middle Ural became a center of gold mining. Entrepreneurs of the Perm Governorate also started the gold rush in West Siberia, soon Yekaterinburgers began to dominate the Russian market of precious metals and gemstones.

After the emancipation reform of 1861 , major Middle Uralian industries that were heavily dependent on serf labor entered decline, although it also allowed light industry to thrive. In 1878, Perm and Yekaterinburg were connected with a railroad, in 1888, railroads reached Tyumen , and ultimately, in 1897, Yekaterinburg joined the Trans-Siberian network . Emergence of railroad transportation helped to revitalize economy of Ural.

The Bolsheviks established their power in Yekaterinburg and Perm during the first days of the October Revolution of 1917. In early 1918 the dethroned Czar Nicholas II and his family were transferred under custody to Yekaterinburg. Local Bolsheviks decided autonomously to execute the royal family on July 17, 1918, to prevent its rescue of by the approaching White Army forces. Ten days later Yekaterinburg was captured by the Czechoslovak troops of Sergei Wojciechowski . For the next year the Anti-bolshevik forces took control over the region. On 19 August 1918, Provisional Government of Ural was formed in Yekaterinburg by a coalition of liberal and democratic socialist parties, it was supposed to serve as a buffer between the Komuch and Provisional Siberian governments. After the Kolchak coup d'état in Omsk in November 1918, the Government of Ural was disbanded.

In July 1919, in the course of the Yekaterinburg offense, Yekaterinburg and the surrounding areas were recaptured by the Red Army forces under command of Vasily Shorin . On the July 15th, the Perm Governorate was split by the Soviets and the east, for the first time in history, became a separate region, the Yekaterinburg Governorate. It was soon abolished and replaced by the Ural Oblast (1923-1934).

In the 1930s many industrial enterprises were established and built with the help of forced labour. [16] Local industry received another impetus during World War II, when important producing facilities were relocated here from the European part of Russia to safeguard them from the advancing Germans (for example, IMZ-Ural , Kamensk-Uralsky Metallurgical Works ). In the postwar period much of the region was off-limits to foreigners. It was over Sverdlovsk that the American U-2 spy plane pilot Gary Powers was shot down on May 1, 1960, while on a reconnaissance mission.

In 1979, there was an anthrax outbreak caused by an accident in a facility to develop biological weapons.

In 1993, Governor Eduard Rossel responded to perceived economic inequality by attempting to create a " Ural Republic ." Sverdlovsk led the "Urals Five" ( Kurgan Oblast , Orenburg Oblast , Perm Krai , Chelyabinsk Oblast and Sverdlovsk) in a call for greater regional power. They argued that the oblasts deserved as much power as the ethnic homeland republics . The Urals Republic Constitution went into effect on October 27, 1993. Then Russian President Boris Yeltsin dissolved the Urals Republic and the Sverdlovsk Parliament 10 days later (on November 9).

Population : 4,268,998   ( 2021 Census ) ; [5] 4,297,747   ( 2010 Russian census ) ; [17] 4,486,214   ( 2002 Census ) ; [18] 4,716,768   ( 1989 Soviet census ) . [19]

Vital statistics for 2022: [20] [21]

• Births: 39,958 (9.4 per 1,000)
• Deaths: 59,316 (13.9 per 1,000)

Total fertility rate (2022): [22] 1.56 children per woman

Life expectancy (2021): [23] Total — 68.79 years (male   — 63.72, female   — 73.80)

There were twenty-one recognized ethnic groups of more than two thousand persons each in the oblast. Residents identified themselves as belonging to a total of 148 different ethnic groups, including: [17]

• 3,684,843 Russians (90.6%);
• 143,803 Tatars (3.5%);
• 35,563 Ukrainians (0.9%);
• 31,183 Bashkirs (0.8%);
• 23,801 Mari (0.6%);
• 14,914 Germans (0.4%);
• 14,215 Azerbaijanis (0.3%);
• 13,789 Udmurts (0.3%);
• 11,670 Belarusians (0.3%);
• 11,510 Chuvash (0.26%);
• 11,501 Armenians (0.3%);
• 11,138 Tajiks (0.3%);
• 9,702 Mordovians (0.22%);
• 9,358 Uzbeks (0.2%);

232,978 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group. [24]

Christianity is the largest religion in Sverdlovsk Oblast. According to a 2012 survey [25] 43% of the population of Sverdlovsk Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church , 5% are nondenominational Christians (excluding Protestant churches), 3% are Muslims , 2% are Orthodox Christian believers without belonging to any Church or are members of other Orthodox churches , 1% are adherents of the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery), and 0.3% are adherents of forms of Hinduism ( Vedism , Krishnaism or Tantrism ). In addition, 36% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", and 9.7% is atheist . [25]

The most important institutions of higher education include Ural Federal University , Ural State Medical University , Ural State University of Economics , Ural State Law University , Ural State Mining University and Ural State Academy of Architecture and Arts , all located in the capital Yekaterinburg.

The oblast's Charter, adopted on 17 December 1994, with subsequent amendments, establishes the oblast government. The Governor is the chief executive, who appoints the Government, consisting of ministries and departments. The Chairman of the Government, commonly referred to as the Prime Minister, is appointed with the consent of the lower house of the legislature , a process similar to the appointment of the federal Prime Minister . But the Governor cannot nominate the same candidate more than twice, yet he/she can dismiss the house after three failed attempts to appoint the Premier. [ needs update ]

The Legislative Assembly is the regional parliament of Sverdlovsk Oblast. Until 2011, it was a bicameral legislature consisting of the Oblast Duma, the lower house , and the House of Representatives, the upper house . [27] Before the reform, members of the legislature served four-year terms with half of the Duma re-elected every two years. The Duma (28   members) was elected in party lists. The 21   members of the House of Representatives were elected in single-seat districts in a first-past-the-post system. The Legislative Assembly was the first bicameral legislature outside an autonomous republic, and the first regional legislature in Russia to elect members based on both party lists and single-seat districts . As of 2021, the Legislative Assembly is a unicameral legislature with a total of 50 seats, with half of the members elected by single-mandate constituencies and the other half elected in party lists for five-year terms. [28] [29]

Compliance with the Charter is enforced by the Charter Court. The existence of such regional courts in Russia, formed and functioning outside the federal judiciary, although challenged, has been upheld and persisted successfully in most constituent members of the Federation where they were established.

Until President Putin 's reforms of 2004, the Governor was elected by direct vote for terms of four years. Eduard Rossel has been the only elected governor (first elected governor for an oblast in Russia) since 1995 (appointed in 1991 and dismissed in 1993 by President Yeltsin ), re-elected in 1999 and 2003.

Since 2012, the oblast's Governor is Yevgeny Kuyvashev .

In the 1990s, the Oblast's population was distinguished by relatively high support for parties and candidates of the right and democratic persuasion. In the 1996 presidential election, Boris Yeltsin , a native of the region who lived in Sverdlovsk until the 1980s, won over 70% of the vote. In the regional elections in 2010 in the Sverdlovsk Oblast, United Russia received minimal support relative to other regions - only 39.79% of votes. [30]

Even though it could do with modernizing, the region's industries are quite diverse. 12% of Russia's iron and steel industry is still concentrated in Sverdlovsk oblast. Iron and copper are mined and processed here, the logging industry and wood-processing are important, too.

The largest companies in the region include Ural Mining and Metallurgical Company , UralVagonZavod , Enel Russia , Nizhniy Tagil Iron and Steel Works , Federal Freight . [31]

Yekaterinburg is a prominent road, rail and air hub in the Ural region. As the economic slump subsided, several European airlines started or resumed flights to the city. These include Lufthansa , British Airways , CSA , Turkish Airlines , Austrian Airlines and Finnair . Malév Hungarian Airlines used to be among those carriers but they had to drop their flights to SVX ( IATA airport code for Sverdlovsk) after a few months.

The Alapaevsk narrow-gauge railway serves the communities around Alapayevsk .

• Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu province , Vietnam
• Harbin , China
• Vladik Dzhabarov , Russian cyclist
• Andrey Fedyaev , Russian cosmonaut
• Yakov Sverdlov , a communist revolutionary after whom Sverdlovsk and subsequently Sverdlovsk Oblast were named.
• Church of the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary , a building of regional historical significance in Staropyshminsk village.

Current Time In Yekaterinburg, Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia

Trump and Allies Forge Plans to Increase Presidential Power in 2025

The former president and his backers aim to strengthen the power of the White House and limit the independence of federal agencies.

Donald J. Trump intends to bring independent regulatory agencies under direct presidential control. Credit... Doug Mills/The New York Times

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By Jonathan Swan Charlie Savage and Maggie Haberman

• Published July 17, 2023 Updated July 18, 2023

Donald J. Trump and his allies are planning a sweeping expansion of presidential power over the machinery of government if voters return him to the White House in 2025, reshaping the structure of the executive branch to concentrate far greater authority directly in his hands.

Their plans to centralize more power in the Oval Office stretch far beyond the former president’s recent remarks that he would order a criminal investigation into his political rival, President Biden, signaling his intent to end the post-Watergate norm of Justice Department independence from White House political control.

Mr. Trump and his associates have a broader goal: to alter the balance of power by increasing the president’s authority over every part of the federal government that now operates, by either law or tradition, with any measure of independence from political interference by the White House, according to a review of his campaign policy proposals and interviews with people close to him.

Mr. Trump intends to bring independent agencies — like the Federal Communications Commission, which makes and enforces rules for television and internet companies, and the Federal Trade Commission, which enforces various antitrust and other consumer protection rules against businesses — under direct presidential control.

He wants to revive the practice of “impounding” funds, refusing to spend money Congress has appropriated for programs a president doesn’t like — a tactic that lawmakers banned under President Richard Nixon.

He intends to strip employment protections from tens of thousands of career civil servants, making it easier to replace them if they are deemed obstacles to his agenda. And he plans to scour the intelligence agencies, the State Department and the defense bureaucracies to remove officials he has vilified as “the sick political class that hates our country.”

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How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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