biography educational studies

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Inspire, Reach, and Teach Through Biography

Introduction.

What do I mean by inspire, reach and teach through biography? By introducing young people to worthy lives we may, in the words of Plutarch, the 1st-century biographer of notable Greeks and Romans, "arouse the spirit of emulation." The idea is not, of course, to expose students to individuals whose achievements seem daunting and unreachable, but to illustrate, vividly and concretely, the choices that we are all presented with—in matters both large and small—in the course of our daily lives. Plutarch explained that his design was "not to write histories, but lives." 1

Reasons for Using Biography

I believe I can use biography as a tool to make reading, writing, and history more fascinating. In an article for the Indiana Historical Society Jane Hadeen states,

By showing how factors such as gender, race, education, etc. effect a person's perception, biographies can bring history to life and help students to see history makers as human. Teaching history with biographies can also help students see how they fit into the historical narrative. 2

In my lessons about the American Revolution, I plan to use biographies to explore great examples of how African Americans have made important contributions to our nation's history. Biography will help me bring different perspectives from the past and to show that people and issues of history are multi-dimensional. Moreover, in my experience, when students find something in common with someone who made history, the events of history will become much more interesting to them.

Rationale/Objectives

Why is history so boring? It's not; the way it's traditionally been taught is boring. Didn't you hate history class when you were in school, memorizing all those meaningless dates and names and places?Social studies instruction should challenge students to think about the events that have made our world the way it is: the lessons should be so engaging and interactive that no child could ever find it boring. 3

The school where I teach is in 3 rd year 'program improvement' 4 and we are mandated to use a structured reading curriculum provided by Houghton Mifflin. The Houghton Mifflin Language Arts Reading Program is designed to be used as a full-year core curriculum with instruction on developing oral language and comprehension, phonemic awareness, decoding skills, fluency, reading comprehension, writing, spelling, and grammar. This instructional program is also organized by a set of themes that integrates social studies and science. Unfortunately, our fiscally strapped district cannot afford all the components of this curriculum to actually make an effective integrated reading/social studies program, so teachers, like me, need to expand upon themes presented within the reading in order to create a comprehensive and engaging learning experience for all students.

As a National Fellow at YNI, I am creating a unit that will elaborate on 5 th grade themes in social studies such as the American Revolution by using biography as a means. In the seminar, Art of Biography, I have learned that there are several types of biography; popular, historical, children's, literary, reference, fictional, and graphic, all of which I plan to try at some point. Others, such as historical and fictional, I plan to use this year. My research explores the American Revolution from the perspective of the African American patriot and illuminates significant contributions by African Americans to the war effort. The challenges I foresee will be time management, planning, and full integration with the Houghton Mifflin curriculum. My barometer of success will be gauged by my students' motivation and engagement, participation, and the ability to utilize graphic organizers to support the writing of and production of a comprehensive multi-paragraph book report and, eventually, a Power Point presentation about their biographical subject.

Why use biography? Using biography in the classroom is both academically compelling and a challenging way to encounter new worlds. Biography and autobiography provide initial entry to the study of periods of time and of places with which there may be little familiarity. In other words, it's a great starting point for building background knowledge on a particular topic, i.e., the American Revolution. Students also like them because they are more readable, less like work, and more pleasurable to learn history from than by textbooks alone. Biographies bring life to history. They make these people, patriots, colonials, loyalists, slaves, or their masters, more accessible and knowable.

I have worked with a diverse body of students in an urban elementary school throughout my twelve year career, and I have observed through behavior and attitude an unquestionable disconnect on the part of my students from the homogenized textbook version of history, typically written from the perspective of the conquerors over the conquered. However, I have also observed my students' fading interest in reading come back to life with the use of historical novels, ability level biographical picture books, and especially books that positively portrayed individuals of color, similar to the students in my classroom.

Last year a visiting professor from San Francisco State University offered to teach a history lesson to my students about the American Revolution. It was a generous offer indeed, a welcomed respite from the loneliness of a self-contained classroom. On the day she returned to my classroom to teach her lesson, she brought armfuls and bags full of varied leveled, 3 rd through 6 th grade, picture books and biographies about the American Revolution, many of which included African Americans patriots. I witnessed a palpable shift in enthusiasm. My students were awakened from their textbook comas; they couldn't wait to get their hands on one of her books. They were so happy, even my reluctant readers! I asked one student, "Why did you choose that book?" He answered, "I like the pictures", then interjected, "hey, this soldier looks like my uncle!" Clearly the books were 'cool' because they were newer, bigger, and more vivid, but moreover, they connected to them because these books included a wider and more diverse cast of characters.

Students are more interested in reading books in which, at least in part, reflect more of who they are. It's obvious when you think about it, but can be less so when you, as the teacher, are the "majority" minority in your own classroom. Good pedagogical practices emphasize the use of multi-cultural materials and lessons that are mindful of the populations in our classrooms. I'm choosing to do just that and by writing this unit I am including the seldom taught contributions of freed and non-freed African Americans during the time of the American Revolution. 5

The books I have chosen will allow students to read about and discover new faces connected to the American Revolution. In addition, I want to introduce reading and research opportunities that will examine the biographies of African Americans involved in the American Revolution that go beyond the shackles of slavery. I hope to embed recognition and cultural pride into an era of U.S. history through the use of biography. In addition, I want to examine these stories and pick out ideas and misconceptions that students may have. The purpose for this unit is to enhance and engage students with the theory that when they can see themselves reflected in their learning, students are more interested and simply put, learn better. In Ussery's research she points out the benefits of positive portrayal of African Americans in literature.

Children learn about their world through books used in the classroom. The positive portrayal of African Americans in children's books is essential because picture books introduce some children to African American culture, and all children need to see characters like themselves in books. 6

Lastly, to accomplish my goal of inspiring, reaching, and teaching, this unit will also include ideas shared from my seminar, Art of Biography, as well as books and research discovered through the YNI Institute. The lessons/activities will be within the guidelines of California's Common Core Standards of reading, writing, research, speaking and listening, presentation, and history and will serve to embellish the required Houghton Mifflin curriculum we use in our district.

Demographics

The Bayshore School District, where I teach 5 th grade, is a very small two school public school district, K-8, just outside of San Francisco. The Bayshore community is very small but rich in history, cultural diversity, and sense of pride. It began as Bayshore City in 1932, but the community voted to be annexed to Daly City in 1963. Because it is such a small district, Bayshore students generally stay with their classmates and peers for a nine-year period. In fact, many students are 2nd generation students and some teachers have taught both the students and their parents. 7

The Bayshore School District is also considered a "low-performing" district and Title 1, as 78% of our population qualifies for the Free or Reduced-Priced Lunch Program. Garnet J. Robertson Intermediate, where I teach, is in its' 3 rd year of "Program Improvement" and has a statewide rank of 4 out of 10. 8 With a little more than 300 students, 40% of our district's populations are English language learners and eleven percent of the whole student body is identified as learning disabled. We have an ethnic/racial mix of 32% Filipino, 28% Hispanic or Latino, 20% Asian, 9% African American, 6% Pacific Islander and 3% White. 9

Lastly, our district has about twenty teachers and the school settings are intimate and the teachers know each other. The racial make-up of teachers is predominately white or European decent, 80%, and then 1% Asian, 1% Hispanic or Latino and of these teachers, 15% are male.

Background/Content

American history is longer, larger, more various, more beautiful, and more terrible than anything anyone has ever said about it. 10

When the Revolution started, the American colonies had a population of about two and a half million people, one fifth of whom were black, mostly slaves. The courage and bravery demonstrated by African Americans during the Revolution influenced legal decisions in the northern states to abolish slavery, leading to freedom for about 60,000 slaves. Yet for the most part, acts of heroism and the contributions of African Americans during the Revolution either went unrecorded or was not widely publicized. 11

In 1776 Congress allowed the recruitment of free blacks and within a year shortages of soldiers encouraged the Patriots to accept blacks in large numbers into the military. The majority of black Patriot troops came from Northern states. But even states such as South Carolina and Georgia that prohibited the enlistment of blacks, used them as auxiliaries. Possibly 5,000 of the 30,000 Patriot troops were black. General Washington accommodated, if not exactly encouraged, the recruitment of free blacks when, on Jan. 12 th 1777, he instructed that recruiter enlist none but freemen. He conspicuously failed to mention race. Connecticut passed an act that allowed for the exemption of any two men who could provide a substitute, no matter his color. They also soon passed a second act that allowed masters to provide their slaves as substitutes, as long as the slave was granted his freedom. Rhode Island was the first state to pass a slave enlistment act, and in 1778 the First Rhode Island Regiment was formed and over the next five years 250 former slaves and freeman served within its ranks. They were the only all-black American unit at the siege at Yorktown, (See: The Yorktown Chronicles ; http://historyisfun.org/yorktown-chronicles/films/siege-of-yorktown.htm), and formed an important part of Major General Benjamin Lincoln's division. 12

Many African Americans also served on warships or on private vessels. The Continental Navy, unlike the army, recruited blacks, both free and enslaved, from the beginning of the Revolutionary war. This was partly due to their need for sailors of any race, but also that many African Americans were experienced, having worked on merchant ships or by serving in the British and state navies. As many as a quarter of the slaves who escaped to the British ended up on ships. African Americans on both sides served as pilots, carpenters, laborers, and also often performed a range of menial duties. 13

It was with these menial labors that most African Americans involved in the war were employed. Patriots were uneasy with the notion of arming slaves, and even the British often used African Americans as a means of liberating other white soldiers for combat. In actuality, the majority of African Americans who participated in the Revolution helped behind the lines instead of fighting. When blacks were incorporated into the British army, the loyalists often maintained a racialized structure and made limited use of the troops in combat. Several hundred of Cornwallis's black troops served as body servants or were employed in other servile capacities. At Petersburg, Cornwallis issued regulations that allowed each field officer to keep two black servants and other officers were allowed to keep one. Soldiers also disobeyed orders and had black servants. Blacks were thought to have a better tolerance for heat and were often assigned the heavy labor when the weather was considered too disagreeable for the white troops. 14

There were also many complaints that the British army in particular did not provide adequate food, clothing, or medicine for their slave and free black populations. The death rate from disease was conspicuously higher among black troops than white. Overcrowding just intensified the problem. Smallpox ravaged the troops and hundreds and maybe thousands of blacks died from the disease. Patriots commented that the British would turn out the sick black soldiers so that they had to fend for themselves or hope to find help among the patriots, which was usually lacking. African Americans saw hope in the armies for their independence, but they weren't completely blind to the realities of service. 15

When I was a student, history books were chock-full with heroic stories of Washington, Revere, and Adams, but never of people of color. Textbooks have gotten better since I was a student; however they still lack the authentic content I believe my students sorely want and need. So now I ask: "What about Freeman, Lafayette, and Salem?"

While researching this unit, I found books that celebrate the lesser known but significant lives and contributions of African Americans in our nation's early history. I want to share that with my students. Many now know about the Revolutionary War's first martyr, Crispus Attucks, a dockworker of African descent, was killed at the Boston Massacre, but far fewer know about Jordan Freeman at the Battle of Groton Heights, Connecticut, September 6, 1781. Freeman, fighting alongside his former master, Colonel William Ledyard, threw a spear that killed British Major William Montgomery. 16

Plaque dedicated to Jordan Freeman At the Battle of Groton Heights Fort Griswold, Connecticut, September 6, 1781 17

In this unit, students will read the books Jordan Freeman Was My Friend by Richard White, Black Heroes of the American Revolution by Burke Davis, and Almost Invisible: Black Patriots of the American Revolution by Kate Salley Palmer. These books will serve to introduce students to African American participants and heroes of the American Revolution. They are level appropriate for 5 th graders, are contextually interesting, and include supporting images and illustrations that will enable students of varied reading abilities to glean both information and enjoyment.

In the historical novel , published in 1994, Jordan Freeman Was My Friend by Richard White we learn about the massacre at Groton, Conn., in 1781, when Benedict Arnold's troops decimated the Revolutionary militia. Most of the characters are based on real people, and the language and background details are rendered with spare authenticity. The tale is narrated by a twelve-year-old Billy Latham. Billy first describes his hardworking but happy boyhood and his friendship with freed slave Jordan Freeman, who comes into Billy's life when he saves the boy from a marauding bull. Freeman is a hired man to Colonel William Ledyard, who commands the troops who are building Fort Griswold. Billy becomes a water boy at the fort; as a witness to the massacre, he sees the men, including Jordan and his Indian friend Tom Wansuc, fight bravely, with tragic outcomes for most. The language is deliberately simple and the morals spelled out plainly: bigotry is evil; loyalty to family, friends and country is the highest virtue. 18

I chose Almost Invisible: Black Patriots of the American Revolution by Kate Salley Palmer , published in 2008, because it is a well-researched book with exciting scenes of valor in battle and is a reminder that even the most 'invisible' person can be a hero. It has lively illustrations and narrative that illuminates the contributions of the African American patriots who fought in George Washington's Continental Army and also highlights the service of more than two dozen black patriots, including Tobias Gilmore, an African prince who regained his freedom by joining the Army and later became one of Washington's bodyguards. Like William Cooper Nell, Palmer ends this book with a quote from Harriet Beecher Stowe, who said black patriots exhibited bravery 'of a peculiar beauty and merit' because they fought for a nation which did not acknowledge them as citizens and equals.' 19

In a very readable style and ideal for 5 th grade, published in 1976, Davis's Black Heroes of the American Revolution relates the stories of a few of the approximately 5,000 black soldiers who participated in the Revolution, emphasizing their unselfishness fighting a war from which few would substantially benefit. Readers will discoverEdward Hector, the brave wagoner of Brandywine; artilleryman and slave Austin Dabney; William Lee, the aide and closest companion of George Washington throughout the war; and many others that will be mentioned within this unit. 20

I also chose these books to reference and read aloud in class; America's Black Founders, Revolutionary Heroes & Early Leaders with 21 Activities by Nancy I. Sanders, African Americans in the Revolutionary War by Michael Lee Lanning, and Colored Patriots of the American Revolution by William Cooper Nell, all of which will further highlight the African American experience during the time of the American Revolution.

America's Black Founders, Revolutionary Heroes & Early Leaders with 21 Activities by Nancy Sanders, published in 2008, celebrates the lesser known but significant lives and contributions of our nation's early African American leaders. Many know that the Revolutionary War's first martyr, Crispus Attucks, a dockworker of African descent, was killed at the Boston Massacre. But far fewer know that the final conflict of the war, the Battle of Yorktown, was hastened to a conclusion by James Armistead Lafayette, a slave and spy who reported the battle plans of General Cornwallis to George Washington. Sanders weaves the histories of dozens of men and women, soldiers, sailors, ministers, poets, merchants, doctors, and other community leaders, who have earned proper recognition among the founders of the United States of America. To get a better sense of what these individuals accomplished and the times in which they lived, readers will celebrate Constitution Day, cook colonial foods, publish a newspaper, petition their government, and more. This valuable resource also includes a time line of significant events, a list of historic sites to visit or explore online, and Web resources for further study. 21

In African Americans in the Revolutionary War , Citadel Press, 2005, military historian Michael Lee Lanning reveals the little-known, critical, and heroic role African Americans played in the American Revolution, serving in integrated units; a situation that wouldn't exist again until the Korean War, more than 150 years later. In the words of the author, "The daily life of black soldiers, sailors, and marines in the Revolution differed little from that of their white comrades. Though prejudice and discrimination did not evaporate with the first shots at Lexington, black servicemen in the Revolution certainly experienced a marked increase in equality throughout the war. Ultimately, as in every armed conflict, soldiers in trenches and sailors and marines in the forecastle judged men by their performance rather than by the color of their skin as they fought for their country's liberty, their unit's pride, and their mutual survival." 22

In Colored Patriots of the American Revolution , Nell has documented the African American heroes and patriots who fought during the Revolutionary War, many of which, who have been forgotten by historians and writers. He identifies many black soldiers; Henry Hill, a veteran of numerous battles, including Lexington, Princeton, and Yorktown; Peter Salem, Titus Coburn, Alexander Ames, Barzilai Lew, Cato Howe, Seymour Burr, Jeremy Jonah and numerous others. In addition to identifying and discussing many of these individuals and the events in which they participated, he often narrates subsequent historical events and or issues in which they were the subject. His work is impressive not only for its wide-ranging scope but for its rich and thorough documentation. Information was obtained from such repositories as the Massachusetts state house archives, the Massachusetts Historical Society, and the Suffolk County Probate Records Office, inscriptions from graveyards in Middletown, Connecticut, North Attleboro and Concord, Massachusetts, as well as the Massachusetts State House, Federal Records, Newspapers throughout the United States, and many other publications. In addition to these sources, he also relied upon the memories, accounts, and writings of individuals, as well as other institutional records. This book is also organized by state, which is especially helpful in 5 th grade, and will provide narrative for map making of the thirteen colonies. 23 In honor of his amazing book first published in 1855, in certain copies, but not all, Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote the following introduction:

THE colored race has been generally considered by their enemies, and sometimes even by their friends, as deficient in energy and courage. Their virtues have been supposed to be principally negative ones. This little collection of interesting incidents, made by a colored man, will redeem the character of the race from this misconception, and show how much injustice there may often be in a generally admitted idea.

In considering the services of the Colored Patriots of the Revolution, we are to reflect upon them as far more magnanimous, because rendered to a nation which did not acknowledge them as citizens and equals, and in whose interests and prosperity they had less at stake. It was not for their own land they fought, not even for a land which had adopted them, but for a land which had enslaved them, and whose laws, even in freedom, oftener oppressed than protected. Bravery, under such circumstances, has a peculiar beauty and merit. 24

In addition to these books, I also plan to use historical fiction novels /fictional biographies from the Scholastic series, Dear America , from a girl's point of view, and My Name is America , from a boy's perspective, to enrich my Social Studies thematic units on colonial life and the Revolutionary War. I chose books from both of these series because they are very "kid" friendly to read. They are written in first person narratives, in the style of journaling, from a child's point of view ranging from the sixteenth century up until the 1960's. For the purpose of my unit, I whittled the list down to just those that center on colonial life and the American Revolution. I will use them for literacy circles and SSR, (silent sustained reading). Students genuinely enjoy these books because they include very realistic and real photos and illustrations of the time throughout which I find helps students stay engaged. 25

Integrating language arts with all subjects is essential to my students' success, including history/social studies. This is especially true for struggling learners who are reading and writing below grade level. Integrating literacy and social studies will help students see the natural connections between and across subject matters presented in their school curriculum. Moreover, by using biography as a learning vehicle, students will use skills such as interpreting non-fiction informational text, the writing process of prewriting, drafting, and revising, as well as using research to build and present what they have learned from their person of interest.

Graphic organizers may look like simple, but they actually help improve students' comprehension and encourage them to think critically as they begin to understand how different topics connect to each other as a whole piece. They also help organize thoughts and information. Another reason I use graphic organizers is to scaffold the writing process. It is a supportive instrument that breaks topics for paragraphs into manageable chunks and as well is a tool for brainstorming ideas around a theme.

Lessons: Language Arts, Social Studies, Grade 5

My unit focuses on teaching my students about African American patriots of the American Revolution through biography, but I also want to begin with a simple yet effective activity to launch biography. The first activity, Bio-Poem, is an autobiographical poem that I will teach in the first weeks of school that will also serve as an 'ice-breaker' and introduction for students and me. This bio-poem uses a graphic organizer that guides and supports. In subsequent lessons, I will use the same format to begin historical biographies about important African American figures of the American Revolution.

Lesson 1: My Bio-poem: A Lesson of Self-Discovery and Peer Introduction

Bio-Poems can be used at the beginning of school as an opening activity for the first week of school. They can also be used anytime throughout the year when introductions are necessary. In this lesson students will use the writing process as well as computer word processing skills. This activity ensures success and builds self-esteem.

Learning outcomes

Students will use the writing process to think and write creatively to introduce themselves to each other as well as to visitors.

Materials/Resources (double click icon)

• Bio-Poem graphic organizer 26
• Glue/Construction paper/Tape
• Paper/Pen/Pencil

Technology Resources

• Digital camera (optional)or regular camera
• Overhead or multimedia projector

Anticipatory Set/Pre-activities

Teacher will share an original Bio-Poem on self by way of using a transparency on the overhead, and will inform students that people reading the completed versions of the Bio-Poems will learn some interesting facts about the authors. Completed items will be displayed.

1. Pass out attached "handout" for Bio-Poems. Explain that the Bio-Poems will be used to introduce themselves to each other and to visitors to the hall (or room).

2. Go over the ten lines that form the poem. Brainstorm ideas together. Model how the poem should be written by using a transparency on the overhead projector to display a completed Bio-Poem on self. Discuss fully what type of items should be included per line.

3. In the computer lab, have students begin the writing process. Circulate to make sure students are on the right track. Allow students to choose the font type and size. (This makes final products look great.)

4. Have students work together in pairs to proof, edit, etc. Finished copies are not needed at this point.

5. Prior to going or while in the lab, have students use a digital camera to snap pictures of each other. The photographs will be displayed along with the Bio-Poems. After typing the Bio-Poem, each student will add his/her own picture to place on the sheet with the poem.

6. Print final copies of the poems—in color, if possible.

7. Have a sharing session, wherein each student reads his/her poem to class. Laminate completed Bio-Poems and display in the hallway or classroom for all to read and enjoy as they visit.

Displayed Bio-Poems will be evidence of desired outcome.

If desired, teacher can devise a rubric to check off each phase of this writing project, sample lesson/rubric. 27

Lesson 2: "Historical Bio-Poetry" A Lesson of Historical Discovery

Students will demonstrate the ability to write clear and grammatically correct sentences, paragraphs, and compositions. Students will take knowledge gained from one genre to apply it to another genre. All students will describe the attributes/contributions of individuals of the American Revolution in poetry form. Students will use the information they gathered about their historical "hero" to write a bio-poem.

- Bio-Poem graphic organizer

- Paper/Pencils

- Books: Almost Invisible: Black Patriots of the American Revolution by Kate Salley Palmer and Black Heroes of the American Revolution by Burke Davis

- Computers

- Scanner/printer

- Overhead or multimedia projector

Anticipatory Set

I will begin saying, "Last time we used the bio-poem format, you used it to talk about yourself and shared it with classmates and today we will expand upon that knowledge and use the new information you gathered from your reading to write bio-poems about your historical person." (Hand back poems from the beginning of the year to remind them)

I will then pass of the handout on historical bio-poems.

I will explain that the students have to follow the format for a bio-poem by including information about their figure to fill in the blanks. For example, they will put their historical figure's name for the title and go from there.

I will go step by step through each of the lines in the poem.

I will then give the students an opportunity for guided practice.

1. Students will use the information they previously gathered to write a bio-poem about their influential figure.

2. Students must follow the bio-poem format.

3. Students will be given two class periods to write their bio-poem.

4. In the computer lab, have students begin the writing process. Circulate to make sure students are on the right track. Allow students to choose the font type and size. (This makes final products look great.)

5. Have students work together in pairs to proof, edit, etc. Finished copies are not needed at this point.

6. After typing the Bio-Poem, each student will include picture to place on the sheet with the poem.

7. Print final copies of the poems—in color, if possible.

8. Have a sharing session, wherein each student reads his/her poem to class. Laminate completed Bio-Poems and display in the hallway or classroom for all to read and enjoy as they visit.

The teacher will asses students' understanding of the lesson through observations made during the class period. The teacher will walk around reading over students work and observing the students understanding of the writing activity. The teacher will also assess the students from their finished project.

Lesson 3: Real Lives – Real History 28 , Historical Figures of the American Revolution

This lesson is designed to provide knowledge Revolution is and understanding about prominent people in European History, how and why their lives shaped the times, and how history was reflected their own lives. This biography-based unit will explore the lives of great figures in the past as well as their role in the American Revolution. Students will use three different graphic organizers; Biography Report, Mock Interview, and Bio-Cube, (all attached), to collect information on their subject. They will also be given time in the computer lab to research their subjects/figures, including pictures/portraits. The final project will be to culminate all their found information, working in pairs, and put into power point presentation to present to the whole class. (The Power Point will be accomplished at a later time from these activities)

With support of graphic organizers, students will produce clear and coherent writing (including multiple paragraph texts) in which the development and organization are appropriate to task, purpose, and audience. With guidance and support from peers and adults, students develop and strengthen writing as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach. Students will also conduct short research projects that use several sources to build knowledge through investigation of different aspects of a topic. Lastly, students will report on a topic or text or present an opinion, sequencing ideas logically and using appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details to support main ideas or themes; students will speak clearly at an understandable pace.

Lesson Objectives

To develop a better understanding of American History during the time of the American Revolution, 1770's to the 1780's by studying the lives of the lesser known, but none-the-less significant players of the time. Students will examine the lives of an African American figures and correlate events in their lives with the history of the time and how history shaped their course or how their actions shaped history.

Materials/Resources (double click icons)

- List of Names

- Biography graphic organizer

- Paper/Pen/Pencil

- Book: America's Black Founder's, Revolutionary Heroes & Early Leaders

- Tag board

- Computers/Internet/printer

1. Students read Palmer's Almost Invisible: Black Patriots of the American Revolution and Davis' Black Heroes of the American Revolution

2. I will read excerpts from Lanning's African Americans in the Revolutionary War and Nell's Colored Patriots of the American Revolution , and America's Black Founder's, Revolutionary Heroes & Early Leaders and have available for reference

3. Students will choose a historical figure from the list

4. Students will go into the computer lab to research subjects

5. Students will use the biography graphic organizer to pre-write

6. Students will pick a partner and will conduct mock interviews with each other as if they were the historical figure

7. Students then write a biographical report on their historical figure

8. Students will type final drafts in the computer lab and include any pics/portraits

Lesson 3a: Mock Interview

Students will formulate and record questions and suggested answers to gain knowledge of their historical person as if they were going to have the opportunity to interview him/her. Speaking and listening standard: Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others.

- Mock interview questions

1. In groups of two the students will take their chosen biographee and research this historical figure.

2. One student will play the role as the interviewer and the other as the historical figure.

3. They will practice the interview and finally perform the interview with the whole class as an audience.

4. The student audience will be given time to ask questions at the end.

The teacher will monitor peer interaction to make sure interviewer and interviewee are on task and are being productive. The teacher will walk around reading over students work and observing the students understanding of the writing activity. The teacher will also assess the students from their finished project.

Lesson 3b: Biography Cubes

Students make a cube from a paper pattern. Each side of the cube has a picture, fact, and

information about the biographee. In the center of the cube each student can place a little clue about the person. Students in the class can try to guess who the cube represents by reading the clues on the different sides of the cube. This will be done using an electronic free version from "Read, Write, Think", a free online version: Bio-Cube.

1. Research, read and complete the biography graphic organizer and mock interviews, before making the cube.

2. Teacher will demonstrate how to make a cube via LCD projector, print, and show how to fold.

3. In the computer lab, have students go to website and fill in their info on the bio-cube. Circulate to make sure students are on the right track.

4. Have students work together in pairs to proof, edit, etc.

5. Prepare your printer for card stock, or save on file to print on the staff copier.

6. Print final copies of the cubes.

7. Have a sharing session, wherein each student reads his/her cube to table groups and in class.

8. Stick cubes on desk for reference.

9. Prior to going or while in the lab, have students use a digital camera to snap pictures of each other. The photographs will be displayed along with the Bio-Poems. After typing the Bio-Poem, each student will add his/her own picture to place on the sheet with the poem.

The teacher will assess student understanding of the lesson through observations made during the class period. The teacher will walk around reading over students work and observing the students understanding of the writing activity. The teacher will also assess the students from their finished project.

Bibliography

Davis, Burke. Black heroes of the American Revolution . New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976.

Kaplan, Sidney, and Emma Nogrady Kaplan. The Black presence in the era of the American Revolution . Rev. ed. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1989.

Lanning, Michael Lee. The African-American soldier: from Crispus Attucks to Colin Powell . New York, NY [u.a.: Birch Lane, 1997.

Lanning, Michael Lee. African Americans in the Revolutionary War . New York: Citadel Press, 2005.

Lattimer, Heather. Thinking through genre: units of study in reading and writing workshops 4-12 . Portland, Me.: Stenhouse Publishers, 2003.

Lee, Hermione. Biography: a very short introduction . Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.

MacLeod, Duncan J. Slavery, race, and the American Revolution . London: Cambridge University Press, 1974.

Nell, William C.. The colored patriots of the American Revolution . New York: Arno Press, 1968.

Nell, William C.. Services of colored Americans in the wars of 1776 and 1812 . New York: AMS Press, 1976.

Palmer, Kate Salley. Almost invisible: Black patriots of the American Revolution . Central, S.C.: Warbranch Press, 2008.

Quarles, Benjamin. The Negro in the American Revolution . Chapel Hill: Published for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg, Va., by University of North Carolina Press, 1961.

Reiss, Oscar. Blacks in colonial America . Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1997.

Sanders, Nancy I.. America's Black founders: Revolutionary Heroes and Early Leaders : with 21 activities . Chicago, Ill.: Chicago Review Press, 2010.

White, Richard. Jordan Freeman was my friend . Thorndike, Me.: Thorndike Press, 1994.

Wood, Peter H.. Strange new land: Africans in Colonial America . Oxford, [UK: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Wright, Donald R.. African Americans in the early republic, 1789-1831 . Arlington Heights, Ill.: Harland Davidson, 1993.

California Common Core Standards for 5 th Grade 29

Reading Standards: Foundational Skills

4. Read with sufficient accuracy and fluency to support comprehension.

a. Read on-level text with purpose and understanding.

b. Read on-level prose and poetry orally with accuracy, appropriate rate, and expression

on successive readings.

c. Use context to confirm or self-correct word recognition and understanding, rereading as necessary.

Reading Standards For Informational Text

1. Quote accurately from a text when explaining what the text says explicitly and when drawing inferences from the text.

2. Determine two or more main ideas of a text and explain how

they are supported by key details; summarize the text.

3. Explain the relationships or interactions between two or more

individuals, events, ideas, or concepts in a historical, scientific,

or technical text based on specific information in the text.

Writing Standards K–5

4. Produce clear and coherent writing (including multiple paragraphs

texts) in which the development and organization are appropriate to task,

purpose, and audience.

5. With guidance and support from peers and adults, develop and strengthen writing

as needed by planning, revising, editing, rewriting, or trying a new approach.

Research to Build and Present Knowledge

7. Conduct short research projects that use several sources to build knowledge

through investigation of different aspects of a topic.

8. Recall relevant information from experiences or gather

relevant information from print and digital sources; summarize

or paraphrase information in notes and finished work, and

provide a list of sources.

Speaking and Listening Standards/Comprehension and Collaboration

4. Report on a topic or text or present an opinion, sequencing ideas logically and using appropriate facts and relevant, descriptive details to support main ideas or themes; speak clearly at an understandable pace.

5.1 Engage effectively in a range of collaborative discussions (one-on-one, in groups, and teacher-led) with diverse partners on grade 5 topics and texts , building on others' ideas and expressing their own clearly.

5.1a Come to discussions prepared, having read or studied required material; explicitly draw on that preparation and other information known about the topic to explore ideas under discussion.

5.1b Follow agreed-upon rules for discussions and carry out assigned roles.

5.1c Pose and respond to specific questions by making comments that contribute to the discussion and elaborate on the remarks of others.

5.1d Review the key ideas expressed and draw conclusions in light of information and knowledge gained from the discussions.

5.2 Summarize a written text read aloud or information presented in diverse media and formats, including visually, quantitatively, and orally.

5.3 Summarize the points a speaker makes and explain how each claim is supported by reasons and evidence.

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas

7. Draw on information from multiple print or digital sources, demonstrating the ability to locate an answer to a question quickly or to solve a problem efficiently.

8. Explain how an author uses reasons and evidence to support particular points in a text, identifying which reasons and evidence support which point(s).

9. Integrate information from several texts on the same topic in order to write or speak about the subject knowledgeably.

Range of Reading and Level of Text Complexity

10. By the end of the year, read and comprehend informational texts, including history/social studies, science, and technical texts, at the high end of the grades 4–5 text complexity band

independently and proficiently.

History-Social Science

5.5 Students explain the causes of the American Revolution.

1. Understand how political, religious, and economic ideas and interests brought about the Revolution.

5.6 Students understand the course and consequences of the American Revolution.

2. Describe the contributions of France and other nations and of individuals to the outcome of the Revolution.

1. Lerner, Bernice. "Why Teach Biography?" Education Week n.d.: n. pag. Web. 15 March, 2005

2. Hedeen, Jane. IHS Coordinator, Student and Educator Programs Teaching with Biographies • "Why Teach with Biographies?" • Indiana Historical Society

Eugene and Marilyn Glick Indiana History Center • Indianapolis <http://www.indianahistory.org/teachers-students/teacher-resources/classroom-tools/Why%20Teach%20with%20Biographies.pdf>

3. Watson, Angela. <http://thecornerstoneforteachers.com/free-resources/content-areas/social-studies>

4. All Title I funded schools and local educational agencies (LEAs) that do not make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) are identified for Program Improvement (PI) under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). <http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/ac/ti/programimprov.asp>

5. Critical Issue: Addressing Literacy Needs in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Classrooms. <http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/reading/li400.htm>

6. Ussery, Susie Robin. Mississippi State University, ProQuest, UMI Dissertations Publishing, 2006. 3238945.

7. Bayshore Elementary School District, < http://www.bayshore.k12.ca.us/bayshore-elementary-school.html>

8. All Title I funded schools and local educational agencies (LEAs) that do not make Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) are identified for Program Improvement (PI) under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). <http://www.cde.ca.gov/ta/ac/ti/programimprov.asp>

10. California Department of Education Analysis, Measurement, &Accountability Reporting Division,6/25/2013.<http://ayp.cde.ca.gov/reports/Acnt2012/2012APRDstAYPReport.aspx?cYear=&allCds=4168858&cChoice=AYP11b>

11. Baldwin, James A. "A Talk to Teachers ", < http://richgibson.com/talktoteachers.htm> (Delivered October 16, 1963, as "The Negro Child – His Self-Image"; originally published in The Saturday Review , December 21, 1963, reprinted in The Price of the Ticket, Collected Non-Fiction 1948-1985 , Saint Martins 1985.)

11. American Legacy Library Book description of Colored Patriots of the American Revolution , 2013. <https://www.digitalegend.com/americanlegacylibrary/index.php?cPath=76>

12. Picco, Kait, < http://fas-history.rutgers.edu/clemens/AfricanAmericansRevolution.html>

16. Quarles, Benjamin. The Negro in the American Revolution , 5-6.

17. Jordan Freeman Chapter, Daughters of the American Revolution, Connecticut DAR, 2009. <http://www.jordanfreemandar.org/history.htm>

18. Publishers Weekly Book review of Jordan Freeman Was My Friend by Richard White 04/04/1994 < http://www.publishersweekly.com/978-0-941423-73-1>

19. Anderson., (SC) Independent-Mail, Review of Almost Invisible: Black Patriots of the American Revolution <http://www.amazon.com/dp/0966711467>

20. School Library Journal Review of Black Heroes of the American Revolution <http://www.amazon.com/Black-Heroes-American-Revolution-Odyssey/dp/0152085610/ref=dp_return_1?ie=UTF8&n=283155&s=books>

21. Landrum, Mary. Lexington Public Library, KY. Review of Americas Black Founders: Revolutionary Heroes & Early Leaders with 21 Activities <http://www.amazon.com/Americas-Black-Founders-Revolutionary-Activities/dp/1556528116>

22. Book description of African Americans in the Revolutionary War, November 29, 2005

< http://www.amazon.com/African-Americans-Revolutionary-Michael-Lanning/dp/0806527161>

23. Book description of The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution , July 4, 2010. <http://www.amazon.com/The-Colored-Patriots-American-Revolution/dp/1453687424>

24. Colored Patriots of the Revolution: Introduction by Harriet Beecher Stowe , Stowe, H. B., 5-6.

Dear America series:

- A Journey to the New World : The Diary of Remember Patience Whipple, Mayflower, 1620 by Kathryn Lasky (September 2010)

- The Winter of Red Snow : The Diary of Abigail Jane Stewart, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, 1777 by Kristiana Gregory (September 2010)

- Cannons at Dawn : The Second Diary of Abigail Jane Stewart, Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, 1779 by Kristiana Gregory (May 2011)

- Standing in the Light : The Diary of Catharine Carey Logan, Delaware Valley, Pennsylvania, 1763 by Mary Pope Osborne (May 2011)

- I Walk in Dread : The Diary of Deliverance Trembley, Witness to the Salem Witch Trials, Massachusetts Bay Colony, 1691 by Lisa Rowe Fraustino (September 2011)

My Name is America series:

- A True Patriot : The Journal of William Thomas Emerson, a Revolutionary War Patriot, Boston, Massachusetts, 1774 by Barry Denenberg (December 2012)

- The Journal of Jasper Jonathan Pierce: A Pilgrim boy, Plymouth , 1620 by Ann Rinaldi (July 2000)

26. Taylor, Linda. Family Education Network, Inc. 2000-2003 <http://www.learnnc.org/lp/media/lessons/LindaTaylor5232002265/Bio_Poem_handout.rtf.>

27. Frech, Alexandra . teacherweb.com., < teacherweb.com/OH/.../Updated—All-About-Me—Icebreaker.docx>

28. Trapani, Robin S., Cornell University. <http://www.gobookee.net/get_book.php?u=aHR0cDovL2NpZXMuZWluYXVkaS5jb3JuZWxsLmVkdS9zeXN0ZW0vZmlsZXMvUmVhbExpdmVzLnBkZgpSZWFsIExpdmVzIOKAkyBSZWFsIEhpc3Rvcnk>

29. California Department of Education, 2011. <http://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/cr/cf/documents/glc5thgradecurriculum.pdf>

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Biography and Education

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Over recent years biographical studies have gained an increasingly important place in academic study. The two are inextricably linked. Education uses biography in teaching, and in biography, education features strongly as a formative stage in personal development. This book elaborates on the analytical work that has drawn attention to biography and education, and seeks to expand the understanding of lives in educational contexts. Mainstream sociology has been quick to embrace this treatment of individuals as biographical appearances, but it is even more relevant in the field of education.

Biography and Education A Reader

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Description

Over recent years biographical studies have gained an increasingly important place in academic study. The two are inextricably linked. Education uses biography in teaching, and in biography, education features strongly as a formative stage in personal development. This book elaborates on the analytical work that has drawn attention to biography and education, and seeks to expand the understanding of lives in educational contexts. Mainstream sociology has been quick to embrace this treatment of individuals as biographical appearances, but it is even more relevant in the field of education.

Table of Contents

Michael Erben

Critics' Reviews

'I wholeheartedly recommend this challenging and stimulating book to all readers who want to find out what it can mean to connect biography with education.' - Management in Education 'This book is a must for neophyte researchers whether they are considering using biographical methods or not. This text will raise their awareness of the key theoretical and methodological issues that they will need to engage with.' - Auto/Biography 'This book, which is accessible, affordable and topical, is a useful handbook for those planning or undertaking research involving life history. Its material will also be of use to students and teachers in the sociology of education as it provides practical examples of the diverse ways in which auto/biographical research can be carried out. For the interested teacher, the book explores some areas which have, to date been little discussed.' - British Educational Research Journal 'I found this volume both useful and provocative.' - Biography

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Biography and Education: A Reader (Social Research and Educational Studies Series) 1st Edition

• ISBN-10 0750707518
• ISBN-13 978-0750707510
• Edition 1st
• Publication date July 30, 1998
• Language English
• Dimensions 6.14 x 0.4 x 9.21 inches
• Print length 174 pages
• See all details

Editorial Reviews

'I wholeheartedly recommend this challenging and stimulating book to all readers who want to find out what it can mean to connect biography with education.' - Management in Education 'This book is a must for neophyte researchers whether they are considering using biographical methods or not. This text will raise their awareness of the key theoretical and methodological issues that they will need to engage with.' - Auto/Biography 'This book, which is accessible, affordable and topical, is a useful handbook for those planning or undertaking research involving life history. Its material will also be of use to students and teachers in the sociology of education as it provides practical examples of the diverse ways in which auto/biographical research can be carried out. For the interested teacher, the book explores some areas which have, to date been little discussed.' - British Educational Research Journal 'I found this volume both useful and provocative.' - Biography

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• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Routledge; 1st edition (July 30, 1998)
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• Paperback ‏ : ‎ 174 pages
• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 0750707518
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-0750707510
• Item Weight ‏ : ‎ 11.2 ounces
• Dimensions ‏ : ‎ 6.14 x 0.4 x 9.21 inches

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How to Write a Good Academic Biography (Part 1)

When your journal article gets accepted or you are preparing for a public presentation, you will often be asked for a short academic biography. For many people, these academic bios are more difficult to write than a dissertation. How do you sum up yourself and your work in 3-5 sentences? What do you need to include? What should you leave out?

What You Should Do

• Start with your full name followed by your current position, your general interests, and your current project, keeping them all very brief.
• If you are within a year of receiving a prestigious award, mention that as well.
• Finally, finish with a sentence that’s personal: add a hobby, a pet’s name, the city you live in—whatever you are comfortable with that is personal but not too private.

What You Should Avoid

• Avoid speaking in the first person, i.e., don’t use “I.”
• Don’t divulge details beyond your current position.
• In a longer bio of multiple paragraphs, you may add more awards and information about your master’s and bachelor’s degrees, but not in a short bio. Moreover, don’t add anything that happened before grad school—including your place of birth. For example:

Hi! My name is Scott. I was originally born in Vermont and now I’m a professor at North Yankee University in Fargone, New York (in upstate New York). I study antelopes’ migration patterns and their impact of native grain growth. My interest in antelopes began as a teenager when I first saw one in the wild. I did my undergrad degree in biology at SUNY and my masters and UCLA and my PhD in Forestry at Hunter College.

Related: Finished drafting your academic biography and heading for an international conference? Check out this post now!

The above example is far too casual and Scott’s work and current position are overshadowed by all the other random details. This can be written in a much better way:

Scott Sampson is a professor of Wildlife Biology at North Yankee University. His work focuses specifically on the migration patterns of antelope and their impact on the growth of native grain. His favorite place to do research in his backyard, which opens to the Akron National Forest.

This improvised version is concise, relevant, and makes Scott’s bio appear professional while giving a short description of his personal details.

Longer Bios

For longer bios, follow the same basic rules, but go into a bit more depth about your work, your education, and your future projects or interests. You may also consider adding a line about your immediate family. But as always, leave the personal details for a short and friendly mention at the end of the bio.

Mostly, your bio will be used by someone to introduce you at a conference or public event so if you write your bio using these tips, you will help them give a smooth and accurate introduction. Remember that the bio is the first thing that people know about you so pack it full of the most important things about yourself!

If you would like to know more about different formats of academic biography, read the next article in this series!

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How to Write a Good Academic Biography (Part 2)

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Biography and Autobiography

• Living reference work entry
• First Online: 10 October 2019
• Cite this living reference work entry

• Wayne J. Urban 2  

Part of the book series: Springer International Handbooks of Education ((SIHE))

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The areas of biographical and autobiographical study are not exceptionally popular as approaches to historical research in education. The reasons for this are several but all likely related to the penchant for historians of education, like other researchers in education, to favor a social scientific approach to their work. Education as a discipline is generally seen as one of the applied social sciences. Given this, an approach to scholarship that favors social scientific concerns such as generalization, hypothesis testing, and larger data sets that support these priorities is dominant in historical study in education as well as the larger field of educational research. This emphasis is further enhanced recently by an orientation toward educational policy and practice that demands results that address policy concerns such as accountability and data driven decision-making. Biography and autobiography speak tangentially at best to these concerns and quite often question the legitimacy of things like generalization, best practices, and policy goals and objectives.

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Introduction

Lost in Enthusiasm? An Elementary Qualitative Analysis of 44 Years of Research in Order to Show Why Even Today Educational Historiography is Not an Unnecessary Luxury

Bond HM. The education of the Negro in the American social order. New York: Prentice-Hall; 1934.

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Bond HM. Negro education in Alabama: a study in cotton and steel. Washington, DC: Associated Publishers; 1939.

Bond HM. The search for talent. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Harvard Graduate School of Education; 1959.

Bond HM. Black American scholars: a study of their beginnings. Detroit: Balamp Publishers; 1969.

Bond HM. Education for freedom: a history of Lincoln University. Princeton: Princeton University Press for Lincoln University; 1976.

Conant JB. My several lives: memoirs of a social inventor. New York: Harper & Row; 1970.

Harlan LR. Booker T. Washington: the making of a black leader. New York: Oxford University Press; 1972.

Harlan LR. Booker T. Washington: the wizard of Tuskegee. New York: Oxford University Press; 1983.

Katz MB. The irony of early school reform. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1968.

Lazerson M. Teachers organize: what Margaret Haley lost. Hist Educ Q. 1984;24(2):261–70.

Article   Google Scholar  

Stameshkin DM. Review of Black Scholar . Hist Educ Q. 1993;33(2):250–2.

Urban WJ. Why teachers organized. Detroit: Wayne State University Press; 1982.

Urban WJ. Black scholar: Horace Mann Bond, 1904–1972. Athens: University of Georgia Press; 1992.

Urban WJ. More Than the Facts: The Research Division of the National Education Association, 1922–1997. Lanham, MD: University Press of America; 1998.

Urban WJ. Gender, Race, and the National Education Association: Professionalization and Its Limitations. New York/London: Routledge Falmer; 2000.

Urban WJ, editor. Leaders in the historical study of American education. Rotterdam/Boston/Taipei: Sense Publishers; 2011.

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The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, USA

Wayne J. Urban

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Correspondence to Wayne J. Urban .

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Graduate School of Education, University of Western Australia, Crawley, Australia

Tanya Fitzgerald

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Urban, W.J. (2019). Biography and Autobiography. In: Fitzgerald, T. (eds) Handbook of Historical Studies in Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0942-6_55-1

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0942-6_55-1

Received : 30 November 2018

Accepted : 13 February 2019

Published : 10 October 2019

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-10-0942-6

Online ISBN : 978-981-10-0942-6

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Educational Biography as a Means of Critical Reflection

The main target of this paper is to present educational biography and its potential to become a critical reflection tool for the development of adult educators. Educational biography is understood as an oral or written testimony of a person in relation to the sum of his/her learning experiences, either within or outside the education system. Individual educational biographies expressively expose the way that people interact with their educational environment and construct their professional identities, as well as their thinking manners. On the other hand, critical self-reflection is a term that has many interpretations and definitions. However, it remains the main cognitive process that may lead to individual and social transformation. In this paper, beyond, a clear presentation of the concept of critical reflection, its content and its function towards the transformation of a person’s frame of reference, I present the structure of an educational biography workshop that has been successfully implemented with adult educators and other teachers in Greece. Keywords: Educational biography critical reflection adult educators

Introduction

Critical thinking and critical reflection are learning outcomes that have been in the agenda of adult

education for many decades. Both these concepts have been part of the more well known philosophical

and practical approaches of our field of practice. On the one hand, Paulo Freire’s complex process of

conscientization has as a prerequisite the development of the critical awareness of one’s social reality

through reflection (Freire, 1996, 1998). For Freire and his devotees, the exploitation of the intrinsic but

lethargic critical reflection skills of the adult learners is the cornerstone for the next step, that of political

action. Critical reflection and political action constitute praxis which is the ultimate outcome for any adult

educational activity within the Freireian philosophy.

On the other hand, Jack Mezirow’s theory of transformative learning, which advocates for an

education that could lead to the transformation of one’s frame of reference, is directly depended to a

process of critical reflection through rational dialogical means ( Mezirow, 1990 ). The Mezirownian

perspective of adult education is grounded on a process of deep and extensive examination of a person’s

dysfunctional assumptions in order to ameliorate the discrepancy between a person’s biography and the

current comprehension of social reality ( Mezirow, 1991 ).

Therefore, in the framework of any of the above educational philosophies, adult educators are

more or less expected to facilitate within their sessions the development of the participants’ critical skills.

Indeed, for many developmental psychologists like Robert Kegan the adult phase of human life is

distinguished from the previous life stages (i.e. childhood, adolescence) due to the tacit competencies of

critical reflection which may well be further developed. Kegan seems to be very convinced about this

relation and he makes an explicit suggestion about it in his proposed association between “curricular

forms and appropriate audiences” (1994, p. 291).

At this point however, questions rise: is it possible for an educator to foster a process of critical

reflection if in the past she/he has not engaged herself/himself in the same process? How is it possible to

facilitate an “unknown” process? The aforementioned questions are of a rhetorical nature. It is well

known that it is not possible for any educator even a gifted one to facilitate something when there is no

personal-direct experience about its content, context and process. Thus, the real question is in what ways

we can involve an adult educator in a critical reflection process? What kind of assumptions or which part

of an educator’s frame of reference may we examine to assist her professional development? Are there

any examples of such processes and how are they structured?

In this paper, I will try to address these questions drawing examples from my own practice. To

achieve this aim I will start by presenting my conception about critical reflection, its content and its

function towards the transformation of a person’s frame of reference. Then I will present educational

biography and I will focus on its potential to become a critical reflection “tool”. Finally, I will present the

structure of a workshop that has been successfully implemented with adult educators and other teachers in

Critical Reflection and Transformation

The learning value of critical thinking is discussed by several authors from both the fields of

pedagogy and that of adult education. Nevertheless, this very important mental process is frequently

interpreted in many different ways and is often confused or identified with other cognitive processes such

as analytical thinking (analysis of the components of a problem or a case) or logical thought, which is

factually the formulation of a conclusion after a series of logical arguments.

In my view, which is influenced by the educational philosophy of Paulo Freire ( 1974 ) for critical

awareness as well as from the practical and theoretical approach of Brookfield for radical teaching

( Brookfield & Holst, 2011 ), critical thinking is a process that aims to lead a learner in a careful, insightful

and in-depth examination of the assumptions on which rests her or his perception of reality.

Critical thinking is all about the thorough enquiry of the foundations of this perception. This

process is not without a structure. It is not a chaotic quest for deep-rooted assumptions. Although there is

no proposed order, Brookfield ( 1988 ) suggests that a mental exercise may be characterised as a critical

thinking process when it includes four fundamental activities: (a) assumption analysis – this activity

includes the challenging of a person’s values and cultural practices in order to analyze their impact on

everyday life, (b) contextual awareness which involves the realization that our individual and collective

beliefs are created in a particular historical and cultural context which should be recognized, (c)

imaginative speculation or the search for alternative ways of thinking about various social phenomena in

order to challenge the dominant ways of thinking and acting and (d) reflective scepticism, which includes

challenging the claims and generalizations of all those grand narratives that lead to uncritical interaction

This process of critical thinking is leading to challenging the validity of the prior assumptions of a

person’s frame of reference or in other words of the conceptual toolbox that a person uses to interpret the

world and her/his relations with the self and the others. This process is actually the core of the process of

transformative learning which was introduced by Jack Mezirow ( 1991 ) and is one of the most influential

theories of learning in the field of adult education.

Educational Biography

Educational biography as a critical reflection process is based on the assumption that seeking

understanding of our life course could enhance learning and could potentially be a transformative force

on both individual and social levels. Educational biography as a research method is considered part of the

biographical and life-history research approaches that flourish within the qualitative research paradigm

( Alheit et al., 2007 ). Indeed, biographical research endeavours may be found nowadays in many journals

with a variety of terms such as i.e. auto/biography, personal narrative, biographic narrative etc.

Biographical research may take the form of investigation into the lives of others, or of reflection on one’s

own experience, history or identity, or a mixture of both ( Merrill & West, 2009 ).

Plummer ( 2000 ) indicates that educational biographies are thematic documents of life where the

information is organized around the life stages or other categories of an individual’s learning experiences

and highlight the frame of reference of the learning process through which individuals construct their

lives, acquire their skills and develop their understanding about learning and teaching. It is more than

apparent that such a process maybe of extreme value when the individual whose educational biography is

analysed is a teacher. Several studies have indicated that the biographical elements that constitute the

frame of reference of educators and especially those that refer to the past learning experiences, shape their

“teaching identity” ( i.a. Larsen, 1999 ; Koulaouzides & Palios, 2009 ).

The idea of examining the educational biographies of learners and more specific of educators in a

form of a structured and organized process was introduced by Dominicé ( 2000 ) who recognized the

educational biography as a critical self-reflection process:

Educational biographies can help adult learners recognize social and interpersonal influences on their lives and educational activities. Preparing a life history focused on learning can also clarify the interdependence of biographical themes, major life transitions and educational activities calling learners’ attention to both processes and outcomes in their lives and learning….

These narratives can also reveal formerly hidden influences such as cultural traditions and beliefs.

( Dominice, 2000, p.6 )

In the aforementioned quoted paragraph we may clearly identify the first elements of critical

reflection as defined previously by Brookfield that of assumption analysis and contextual awareness.

Based on the above thinking, Dominice, organized for many years an Educational Biography Seminar at

the University of Geneva that was addressed to adult learners who wished to be involved in adult

education as professionals. He developed a workshop where learners after being exposed to the

theoretical foundations of biographical research, they were expected to prepare written narratives. Then,

through a year-long group-work process a through analysis and discussion of every narrative took place.

This process that satisfied the third and fourth element of the abovementioned critical reflection process,

gave to the participants the opportunity to recognize alternative understandings and qualities but also to

realize that their competencies regarding learning and eventually teaching are socially constructed:

As professionals make explicit the assumptions, influences plans, activities and results of their past learning, they can become more reflective practitioners and acquire better guides to their future learning.

( Dominice, 2000, p. 57 )

It is clear to me that the recognition and examination of an educational biography that has as a

consequent result the illumination of the individual learning paths is an internal dialogical process, a

process of critical self-reflection. The construction of an educational biography by an educator and its

shared analysis and interpretation urges her/him to stand firmly against old and new doctrines and to

question the structural assumptions that constitute her/his individual frame of reference and thus shape

her/his professional identity - i.e. teaching style, relation to the learners and other qualities that form the

profession of an educator - ( Koulaouzides, 2010 ).

Description of an Educational Biography Workshop

As I presented above, Pierre Dominicé showed us the way by offering us a clear theoretical and

practical field of practice. However, his brilliant seminar had as a timeframe a whole academic year. Our

experience has showed us that in continuing professional education courses, adult educators rarely have

the luxury to devote a whole academic year for similar activities. Therefore, having all of the above in

mind, together with a colleague who has also been involved in biographical research (see Pazioni &

Koulaouzides, 2016), we decided to implement a shorter self-reflection workshop through the use of

educational biography aiming to (a) familiarize the participants with the biographical research approaches

and (b) introduce a self-reflection methodology that may assist them in recognizing a particular part of

their frame of reference: their assumptions about the role of the adult educator.

We argue that although this workshop is rather short (usually it requires two long weekends) the

overall experience may become the stimuli for the initiation of an internal dialogical process that may lead

individuals and more particular individuals in the educational profession to develop into reflective

practitioners. Our argument is not only supported by the relevant literature ( i.a. Dominice, 2007 ) but also

and perhaps more importantly by the feedback comments we have received after having implemented this

workshop several times. It is noticeable that the participants in all their comments show an increased

awareness regarding the relation between their biographical paradigm and their assumptions about the role

of the teacher. The structure of the workshop is as follows:

We divide the group of the participants in smaller groups and we implement a short acquaintance

exercise using a series of especially prepared cards. The cards have on them quotes that refer to the theory

and practice of adult education from various known scholars. The cards are prepared in duplicates to give

the participants the opportunity to create randomly formed couples. We then ask every couple to proceed

with short interviews of each other and to discuss the quote found on their common card. As a next step

we ask every participant to introduce to the rest of the group his/her couple and then to share with the

group thoughts regarding the quote. In this part our aim is on the one hand to create a familiar

environment and on the other hand to offer a first indication about the content of the session (biographical

information – theory and practice of adult education). At the same time implicitly the whole group

acquires a first idea of the existing assumptions about adult education during the commentaries of the

participants on the printed quotes.

Then, we distribute to each participant two pages that contain two different exercises. The pages

are colored differently and each group has its own color. We ask the participants to start with the first

page where we ask them to think and write a short educational biographical account explaining to them

that they should include as many educational experiences as they can, from any level of education. Once

this is over, we ask the participants to take a break and then perform the second exercise which is asking

them to write as explicitly as possible their opinion regarding the role of the adult educator based on their

own experiences. We ask them then to attach the two pages together and to place both pages in a folder.

As a next step we collect the folders from each group and we distribute them so that each group

receives the collected forms from a different group. We then invite the groups to open the folders and

place the documents upside down. Then we ask each member of the group to pick randomly one set, to

read the first the biographical account carefully and then to read the accompanied statement about the role

of the adult educator and discuss it. The discussion is at the beginning an individual exercise and then a

collective activity within each group. We urge the participants to comment the relation, if any, between

the educational experiences described and the stated assumptions about the role of the adult educator. We

also encourage them to discuss as thorough as possible all the cases in their folder and to decide about the

presentation of each case to the rest of the group.

When all the groups are ready, we start the presentation of each account and the related statement

about the role of the educator and the associated comments that took place from the discussion within the

group. At this point, we ask the participants not to react when they hear their own biography but to keep

notes and wait for the completion of the presentations. Once all the presentations are over we ask the

participants to share on a voluntary basis with the rest of the group their reactions (agreements,

disagreements, emotions and so on) and to comment about the content of the whole process.

After the implementation of this phase we present for a short period some theoretical elements

about educational biography and its potential use a tool for the initiation of an internal dialogue, as means

for critical self-reflection. Finally, we distribute a blank page to the participants asking them to illustrate

the whole experience with a paragraph, a phrase, an image or anything they find appropriate. We urge to

participants to post their appraisals on a board. This last activity concludes the workshop.

Conclusions

In this paper I demonstrated the potential use of educational biography as a tool for critical self

reflection. I strongly support the idea that educational biography may foster and facilitate the dialogue of a

person with himself/herself and the others. For those who are in the professional field of education,

educational biography may found to be of extreme importance since the educational biography of a

teacher, not only includes issues of educational and professional experiences but also encompasses

aspects of family life, school life, personal characteristics, values, worldviews, and special features that

are essential influences to career choices, i.e. to the teaching profession ( Koulaouzides, 2010 ).

Through the presented workshop we try to foster critical self reflection since we consider

educational biography as a powerful tool that is able to make people aware of their meaning-making

process. Human beings have a rich and highly varied mental and social life reflected in all their

relationships and institutions in which they live. Thus, recognizing and understanding the ‘biographical

experience’ (on which meaning-making is based) is of key importance in educational theorizing, practice

and research. The educational biography seen as a particular set of experiences of the self is a source of

knowledge and a valuable pedagogic resource which can be utilized for learning as well as personal and

professional development of educators.

• Alheit, P., Anderson, A.S., Merrill, B. & West, L. (Eds.). (2007). Using Biographical and Life History Approaches in the Study of Adult and Lifelong Learning: European Perspectives. Frankfurt, New York and London: Peter Lang.
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• Brookfield, S. & Holst, J. (2011). Radicalizing Learning: Adult Education for a Just World. San Franscisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Dominicé, P. (2000). Learning from our lives: Using educational biographies with adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Dominice, P. (2007). Educational Biography as a Reflective Approach to the Training of Adult Educators. In P. Alheit, L. West., A. Andersen, & B. Merrill (Eds.), Using biographical and life history approaches in the study of adult and lifelong learning: European perspectives (pp. 241-254). Frankfurt: Peter Lang.
• Freire, P. (1974). Educational for Critical Consciousness. London: Bloomsbury.
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• Freire, P. (1998). The adult literacy process as cultural action for freedom. Harvard Educational Review, 68, 499-521.
• Kegan, R. (1994). In over our heads: The mental demands of modern life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Koulaouzides, G. (2010). Educational Biography as Research Evidence in the Field of Adult Education. In D. Vergides & Α. Kokkos (Eds.), Adult Education: International Approaches and Greek Trajectories (pp. 192-211). Athens: Metaixmio.
• Koulaouzides, G. & Palios, Z. (2009). Oscillating between authority and emancipation: a biographical study on the professional development of adult educators. In G. Zarifis (Ed.), Educating the Adult Educator: Quality Provision and Assessment in Europe, Conference Proceedings, ESREA-ReNAdET (pp. 535-544). Thessaloniki: Grafima Publications.
• Larsen, D. (1999). Biographies of Six Canadian Counsellor Educators (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://era.library.ualberta.ca/
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• Mezirow, J. (1990). Fostering critical reflection in adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass
• Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Pazioni, A. & Koulaouzides, G. (2016). Launching a process of self-reflection through educational biography. In Proceedings of the 2nd Conferrence of ESREA’s Network “Interrogating Transformative Processes in Learning and Education: An International Dialogue” (pp. 251-257). Athens: ESREA & Hellenic Adult Education Association.
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25 May 2017

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https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2017.05.02.213

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Koulaouzides, G. A. (2017). Educational Biography as a Means of Critical Reflection. In E. Soare, & C. Langa (Eds.), Education Facing Contemporary World Issues, vol 23. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 1741-1747). Future Academy. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2017.05.02.213

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Educational biography as a means of critical reflection: engaging adult educators in a process of recognizing their teaching frame of reference

In this paper I present educational biography as a tool that could engage adult educators in a critical reflection process on their teaching frame of reference.

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Athina Charissi Dr., Lecturer, Department of Early Years Learning and Care, University of Ioannina, Greece

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THE EDUCATIONAL AUTOBIOGRAPHY AS A CRITICAL REFLECTION TOOL TOWARDS PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PRE-SERVICE EARLY YEARS PRACTITIONERS

An overview of the research area reveals the importance of using biographical methods at a higher education level. However, in Greece, there is a lack of systematic research on such applications. This paper presents a study based on the biographical approach and specifically on the method of educational autobiography (EAB). More specifically, it presents an implementation of educational autobiography in the context of the academic education of students from a Department of Early Years Learning and Care. The purpose was to investigate the use of the specific method (EAB) as an innovative academic tool towards personal growth and professional development of the students in terms of promoting critical reflection and transformative processes about themselves and their role as Early Years Practitioners. The sample of participants consisted of 87 4th-year students attending an experiential laboratory course at an Academic Department of Early Years Learning and Care in Greece. The study followed a mixed method approach. The closed-ended questions were analyzed quantitatively while the Educational Autobiography texts were analyzed thematically. The findings showed that all students engaged in reflection on past experiences. Most of them found EAB an interesting, self-enrichment process, leading to a better appreciation of experiences in shaping themselves and their role/practice as Early Years Practitioners.

Article visualizations:

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Alheit, P., & Dausien, B. (2000). “Biographicity” as a Basic Resource of Lifelong Learning’. In P. Alheit et al. (Eds.), Lifelong Learning Inside and Outside Schools, vol.2, 400-422. Roskilde: Roskilde University.

Caruana, V., Woodrow, K., & Pérez, L. (2015). Using the Learning Activities Survey to Examine Transformative Learning Experiences in Two Graduate Teacher Preparation Courses. InSight: A Journal of Scholarly Teaching, 10, 25-34.

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Charissi, A., Tympa, E., & Karavida, V. (2019). Contribution of Systematic Exploration of Artworks in Raising Children’s Critical Thinking and Empathy about Friendship and Difference through Early Years. International Journal of Education, 11(4), 35-47. https://doi.org/10.5296/ije.v11i4.15857

Dominicé, P. (2010). Learning from Our Lives: Using Educational Biographies with Adults. S. Francisco: Jossey Bass.

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Koulaouzides, G. (2017). To kommati pou leipei… h allios h ekpaideftiki viografia os ergaleio anastochasmou ton ekpaideftikon synechizomenis epaggelmatikis katartisis. 3rd Conference EPALE, Nicosia 22/11/2017. https://epale.ec.europa.eu/en/node/44352. Accessed 7 January 2020 [in Greek]

Liodaki, N., & Karalis T. (2013). Educational experiences and Transformative Learning in Higher Education in Greece. A case study with Student Teachers. International Journal of Education, 5(2), 75-85. https://doi.org/10.5296/ije.v5i2.3282

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Monteagudo, J. G. (2017). Biographical-Narrative Methodologies for Adult Education and Lifelong Learning. Βetween Personal Development and Critical Reflection. Culture, Biography & Lifelong Learning, 3(2), 45-65.

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Raikou, N. (2019). Teacher education at the forefront: long-term study through the prism of university pedagogy and transformative learning theory. European Journal of Education Studies, 6(3), 88-102. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3243470

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Tympa, E., Karavida, V., & Charissi, A. (2019). The impact of Systematic Exploration of Artworks in Raising Children’s Healthy Eating Habits in Early Years Education. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 9(12), 85-92.

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What did Albert Einstein do?

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Albert Einstein

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Albert Einstein was a famous physicist. His research spanned from quantum mechanics to theories about gravity and motion. After publishing some groundbreaking papers, Einstein toured the world and gave speeches about his discoveries. In 1921 he won the Nobel Prize for Physics for his discovery of the photoelectric effect .

Albert Einstein is best known for his equation E = mc 2 , which states that energy and mass (matter) are the same thing, just in different forms. He is also known for his discovery of the photoelectric effect , for which he won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921. Einstein developed a theory of special and general relativity, which helped to complicate and expand upon theories that had been put forth by Isaac Newton over 200 years prior. 

Albert Einstein had a massive influence on contemporary physics. His theory of relativity shifted contemporary understanding of space completely. Along with his equation E = mc 2 , it also foreshadowed the creation of the atomic bomb . Einstein’s understanding of light as something which can function both as a wave and as a stream of particles became the basis for what is known today as quantum mechanics .

Albert Einstein was raised in a secular Jewish family and had one sister, Maja, who was two years younger than him. In 1903 Einstein married Milena Maric, a Serbian physics student whom he had met at school in Zürich. They had three children: a daughter, named Lieserl, and two sons, named Hans and Eduard. After a period of unrest, Einstein and Maric divorced in 1919. Einstein, during his marriage, had begun an affair with his cousin Elsa Löwenthal. They were married in 1919, the same year he divorced Maric.

How did Albert Einstein die?

After suffering an abdominal aortic aneurysm rupture several days before, Albert Einstein died on April 18, 1955, at age 76.

In December 1926 Albert Einstein wrote to Max Born that “[t]he theory produces a good deal but hardly brings us closer to the secret of the Old One. I am at all events convinced that He does not play dice.” Einstein was reacting to Born’s probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics and expressing a deterministic view of the world. Learn more.

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Albert Einstein (born March 14, 1879, Ulm , Württemberg, Germany—died April 18, 1955, Princeton , New Jersey , U.S.) was a German-born physicist who developed the special and general theories of relativity and won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1921 for his explanation of the photoelectric effect . Einstein is generally considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century.

(Read Einstein’s 1926 Britannica essay on space-time.)

Einstein’s parents were secular , middle-class Jews. His father, Hermann Einstein, was originally a featherbed salesman and later ran an electrochemical factory with moderate success. His mother, the former Pauline Koch, ran the family household. He had one sister, Maria (who went by the name Maja), born two years after Albert.

Einstein would write that two “wonders” deeply affected his early years. The first was his encounter with a compass at age five. He was mystified that invisible forces could deflect the needle. This would lead to a lifelong fascination with invisible forces. The second wonder came at age 12 when he discovered a book of geometry , which he devoured , calling it his “sacred little geometry book.”

Einstein became deeply religious at age 12, even composing several songs in praise of God and chanting religious songs on the way to school. This began to change, however, after he read science books that contradicted his religious beliefs. This challenge to established authority left a deep and lasting impression. At the Luitpold Gymnasium , Einstein often felt out of place and victimized by a Prussian-style educational system that seemed to stifle originality and creativity. One teacher even told him that he would never amount to anything.

Yet another important influence on Einstein was a young medical student, Max Talmud (later Max Talmey), who often had dinner at the Einstein home. Talmud became an informal tutor, introducing Einstein to higher mathematics and philosophy . A pivotal turning point occurred when Einstein was 16 years old. Talmud had earlier introduced him to a children’s science series by Aaron Bernstein, Naturwissenschaftliche Volksbucher (1867–68; Popular Books on Physical Science ), in which the author imagined riding alongside electricity that was traveling inside a telegraph wire. Einstein then asked himself the question that would dominate his thinking for the next 10 years: What would a light beam look like if you could run alongside it? If light were a wave , then the light beam should appear stationary, like a frozen wave. Even as a child, though, he knew that stationary light waves had never been seen, so there was a paradox . Einstein also wrote his first “scientific paper” at that time (“The Investigation of the State of Aether in Magnetic Fields”).

Einstein’s education was disrupted by his father’s repeated failures at business. In 1894, after his company failed to get an important contract to electrify the city of Munich , Hermann Einstein moved to Milan to work with a relative. Einstein was left at a boardinghouse in Munich and expected to finish his education. Alone, miserable, and repelled by the looming prospect of military duty when he turned 16, Einstein ran away six months later and landed on the doorstep of his surprised parents. His parents realized the enormous problems that he faced as a school dropout and draft dodger with no employable skills. His prospects did not look promising.

Fortunately, Einstein could apply directly to the Eidgenössische Polytechnische Schule (“Swiss Federal Polytechnic School”; in 1911, following expansion in 1909 to full university status, it was renamed the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, or “Swiss Federal Institute of Technology”) in Zürich without the equivalent of a high school diploma if he passed its stiff entrance examinations. His marks showed that he excelled in mathematics and physics , but he failed at French , chemistry , and biology . Because of his exceptional math scores, he was allowed into the polytechnic on the condition that he first finish his formal schooling. He went to a special high school run by Jost Winteler in Aarau , Switzerland , and graduated in 1896. He also renounced his German citizenship at that time. (He was stateless until 1901, when he was granted Swiss citizenship.) He became lifelong friends with the Winteler family, with whom he had been boarding. (Winteler’s daughter, Marie, was Einstein’s first love; Einstein’s sister, Maja, would eventually marry Winteler’s son Paul; and his close friend Michele Besso would marry their eldest daughter, Anna.)

Einstein would recall that his years in Zürich were some of the happiest years of his life. He met many students who would become loyal friends, such as Marcel Grossmann, a mathematician, and Besso, with whom he enjoyed lengthy conversations about space and time. He also met his future wife, Mileva Maric, a fellow physics student from Serbia.

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Last update 01.02.2024

Xavier Bettel was born on 3 March 1973 in Luxembourg.

Education and qualifications

Following secondary school studies, Xavier Bettel pursued higher education studies at the University of Nancy, where he was awarded a master’s degree in public and European law from the Faculty of Law.

Governmental posts

Following the legislative elections of 20 October 2013, Xavier Bettel was appointed Prime Minister, Minister of State, Minister for Communications and Media, Minister for Religious Affairs on 4 December 2013 in the coalition government formed by the Democratic Party (DP), the Luxembourg Socialist Workers’ Party (LSAP) and the Green Party ('déi gréng'). Following the resignation of Maggy Nagel from the government, Xavier Bettel was appointed Minister for Culture on 18 December 2015.

Following the legislative elections of 14 October 2018, Xavier Bettel was appointed Prime Minister, Minister of State, Minister for Communications and Media, Minister for Religious Affairs on 5 December 2018 in the coalition government formed by the DP, the LSAP and 'déi gréng'.

Following the legislative elections of 8 October 2023, Xavier Bettel was appointed Vice Prime Minister, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade and Minister for Development Cooperation and Humanitarian Affairs on 17 November 2023 in the coalition government formed by the Christian Social People's Party (CSV) and the Democratic Party (DP).

Other political posts

A member of the DP since 1989, Xavier Bettel was elected to Parliament for the first time in 1999 at the age of 26 while standing for the DP for Centre district. He was re-elected in 2004, 2009 and 2013. In Parliament, he assumed among others the roles of vice-chairman of the Legal Affairs Committee from 2004 to 2013 and vice-chairman of the Committee of Enquiry into the State Intelligence Service from 2012 to 2013. From 2009 to 2011, he assumed the role of chairman of the DP parliamentary group.

At local level, Xavier Bettel initially served as a municipal councillor for the City of Luxembourg from 2000 to 2005, then as an alderman from 2005 to 2011. Following the municipal elections of 2011, he became mayor, a position he held until his appointment as Prime Minister, Minister of State in December 2013.

From January 2013 to November 2015, Xavier Bettel was chairman of the DP.

Professional activities

From 2001 to 2013, Xavier Bettel was a member of the Luxembourg Bar.

Member of the Government