humanistic theory case study

Humanistic Theory of Personality: Definition And Examples

Sourabh Yadav (MA)

Sourabh Yadav is a freelance writer & filmmaker. He studied English literature at the University of Delhi and Jawaharlal Nehru University. You can find his work on The Print, Live Wire, and YouTube.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

The humanistic theory of personality posits that humans have an innate drive toward self-actualization , as long as they are surrounded by the right environment.

It was developed by Carl Rogers, whose work (along with that of Abraham Maslow) helped establish the humanistic school of psychology. Unlike psychoanalysis or behaviorism, the humanistic school tries to take into account the entirety of the human experience.

For example, in clinical therapy, humanistic psychologists give centrality to the client’s experiences and try to provide a positive atmosphere to help them grow. Let us discuss the concept in more detail and then look at some examples.

Humanistic Theory of Personality Definition

The humanistic theory of personality was developed by Carl Rogers, largely in response to Freud’s personality theory , with which he strongly disagreed. He believed that:

“Experience is for me, the highest authority. . . . Neither the Bible nor the prophets—neither Freud nor research—neither the revelations of God nor man—can take precedence over my own experience”. (Rogers, 1961)

During the 1950s and 60s, behaviorism and psychoanalysis were the two most prominent schools of psychology. But the behaviorists used the techniques of natural sciences, which reduced humans to animals or machines.

Psychoanalysts, on the other hand, only focused on abnormal people. As such, a new group of psychologists (led by Abraham Maslow) created the humanistic school of psychology, which tried to give a fuller account of humans.

Humanistic psychology :

“recognizes his [a human’s] status as a person, irreducible to more elementary levels, and his unique worth as a being potentially capable of autonomous judgment and action.” (Kinget, 1975)

For Carl Rogers, the most important thing was to understand how a person viewed the world—their “subjective reality”. This led him to develop his humanistic theory of personality, which argued that all humans are innately driven to pursue their innermost feelings.

However, most people are actually unable to pursue this self-actualization because of the surrounding environment. What people need are relationships that provide “unconditional positive regard”, which helps us become fully functioning humans and reach our potential.

Humanistic Theory of Personality Examples

Client-Centered Therapy: One of the biggest contributions of the humanistic theory of personality was its influence on therapy. While Rogers was pursuing his doctorate, most psychologists were trained in the psychoanalytic tradition. But Rogers realized that psychoanalysis had severe limitations, so he created his brand of client-centric therapy, based on the central belief that “the client who knows what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been deeply buried” (1961). Unlike psychoanalysts, Rogers did not call his disturbed individuals “patients”. Instead, he referred to them as “clients”, made an active attempt to understand their subjective reality, and then provided a positive therapeutic atmosphere.
Q-Technique: While working as a professor of psychology at the University of Chicago, Rogers and his colleagues attempted to create the first method of objectively measuring therapy’s effectiveness. This was the Q-technique (also known as the Q-sort technique), which was originally developed by William Stephenson. Rogers’ method involved having clients describe themselves in the present (real self) and then as they would like to become (ideal self). The two selves are then measured to determine the correlation between them. As the therapy progresses, the correlation between the two would become larger. So, it helps us to measure the effectiveness of therapy at any point during or after it. (Rogers, 1954).
Education: Humanistic psychology believes in seeing every human being as a unique individual, and this idea has played a huge influence on modern education. Rogers saw traditional schools as bureaucratic institutions that were resistant to change. He instead advocated a “student-centric” approach to education, where students would take charge and develop their learning paths. Today, this idea is brought to reality in open classrooms, where the students are self-directed, choosing what and how they should study. The teachers act as facilitators, who provide the right atmosphere and support for individual learning journeys. In the United Kingdom, A.S. Neill founded the Summerhill School, built on many of these humanistic ideas.

Understanding Parenthood & Relationships: Besides professional therapy or education, the humanistic theory of personality can also help us understand and improve our relationships. Like Maslow, Rogers believed that humans have an innate drive toward self-actualization. However, most people do not live according to their innermost feelings because of the childhood need for positive regard. If children are not loved unconditionally, they develop “conditions of worth”, that is, they learn to act in certain ways to be loved, which continues into adulthood. Rogers says that to remedy this, a person needs “unconditional positive regard”—to be loved for what they are—and this helps them become a “fully functioning person”.
Career Guidance: The humanistic theory of personality can help us direct the overall path of our lives. Both Maslow and Rogers believe that humans are naturally driven toward self-actualization. For Rogers, this can happen when we are surrounded by loving people (who provide “unconditional positive regard”) and pursue our innermost feelings. Rogers calls it the “organismic valuing process”, which allows us to live fulfilling lives and reach our full potential. Like existentialism, humanistic psychology tells us to not worry about the conventions imposed upon us by society but to build our values and pursue them.
Gestalt Therapy: Gestalt therapy was developed as a humanistic psychotherapy, and it is built around the idea that people are influenced by their present environment. So, instead of delving too much into past experiences, gestalt therapy focuses on the present moment, and it tries to improve the client’s awareness, freedom, and self-direction. Developed by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls, and Paul Goodman, the therapy tries to use empathy and unconditional acceptance to help an individual achieve personal growth and balance . The goal is to help people accept and trust what they feel.

So far, we have looked at the applications of the humanistic theory of personality. Let us now discuss some real-world instances related to it:

Abraham Lincoln: Unlike other psychologists of his time, Maslow studied successful people, one of whom was the 16th President of the United States. Maslow found out that individuals like Lincoln were rarely concerned with other people’s judgments of them. Instead, they were focused on one central problem and spent their entire lives trying to solve it. So, successful people are deeply concerned with self-actualization, and the humanistic theory of personality also advocates doing that.
A Bank Robber: Let us now talk about a completely contrasting instance: a criminal. If humanistic psychologists believe that all humans are innately good, then what about a bank robber? The answer is that, while humans have free will (they can act according to their wishes), they are also influenced by their environment. In this case, the surrounding conditions (monetary issues, proximity to other criminals, etc.) are what turn an individual into a criminal.
Working Towards Promotion: In our professional careers, we all try to move upwards or achieve what is known as self-actualization. For example, you might work very hard to get more clients for your company, which would allow you to gain workplace incentives and perhaps eventually a promotion. So, our actions are driven by our desire to reach our full potential, which is what humanistic psychology believes.
Tipping Behavior: The humanistic theory of personality also suggests that we wish to have “ congruence ” between our “ideal self” and “real self”. Incongruence can lead to mental distress (say anxiety), therefore we try hard to maintain our self-concept. For example, suppose you ate at a restaurant with a friend, and they felt that your tip was not sufficient. You may defend yourself by saying that the tip was in line with the service, which would allow you to maintain your self-concept of generosity & fairness.

Humanistic Approach to Personality’s Strengths & Weaknesses

While the humanistic theory of personality provided a way of studying the “whole person”, it is also often criticized for being unscientific.

During the 1950s and 60s, humanistic psychology began as a protest against behaviorism . This new group of psychologists argued that behaviorism concentrated on trivial behavior and ignored the emotional processes that make humans unique. (Hergenhahn, 2000).

They also critiqued psychoanalysis, arguing that it focused only on abnormal individuals and emphasized sexual/unconscious motivation; it ignored healthy individuals whose primary motives are personal growth and the improvement of society.

Furthermore, they highlight the flaws of the trait theory of personality , which tended to think personality traits – such as self-esteem – are innate rather than developed through environmental and social factors .

Humanistic psychology provided an alternative way of studying humans, which took into account the “wholeness” of a person, instead of merely looking at certain behaviors or unconscious motivations.

However, humanistic psychology has also been criticized by many scholars. It presents humans in a “positive” light, but this is almost a kind of wishful thinking that is not supported by facts.

Humanistic psychology also rejects traditional science, but then what is supposed to replace it?

If humanistic psychology relies merely on “innermost feelings”, then it stops being psychology and instead becomes philosophy or perhaps even religion. Critics accuse humanistic psychology of taking the discipline back to its prescientific past (Hergenhahn)

Finally, many of the terms that humanistic psychologists use are quite vague. What exactly do we mean when we say things like “innermost feelings” or “actualizing our inherent potential”? These terms/phrases defy clear definition and verification, making them somewhat unreliable.

The humanistic theory of personality posits that all humans are driven to pursue their innermost feelings and reach their full potential.

This, however, is dependent on our surrounding environment. Most of us develop “conditions of worth”, which make us act in certain ways to be loved. Rogers’ attempt was to help people find (whether through personal relationships or therapy), “unconditional positive regard”.

This unconditional acceptance allows people to become fully functioning humans and reach their full potential. The humanistic theory of personality has been applied to various fields, such as education, client-centric therapy, etc.

Carl Rogers Humanistic Theory and Contribution to Psychology

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

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Carl Rogers (1902-1987) was a humanistic psychologist best known for his views on the therapeutic relationship and his theories of personality and self-actualization.

Rogers (1959) believed that for a person to “grow”, they need an environment that provides them with genuineness (openness and self-disclosure ), acceptance (being seen with unconditional positive regard), and empathy (being listened to and understood).

Without these qualities, relationships and healthy personalities will not develop as they should, much like a tree will not grow without sunlight and water.

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goals, wishes, and desires in life. When, or rather if they did so, self-actualization took place. This was one of Carl Rogers most important contributions to psychology, and for a person to reach their potential a number of factors must be satisfied.

Person-Centered Therapy

Rogers developed client-centered therapy (later re-named ‘person-centered’), a non-directive therapy, allowing clients to deal with what they considered important, at their own pace.

This method involves removing obstacles so the client can move forward, freeing him or her for normal growth and development. By using non-directive techniques, Rogers assisted people in taking responsibility for themselves.

He believed that the experience of being understood and valued gives us the freedom to grow, while pathology generally arises from attempting to earn others’ positive regard rather than following an ‘inner compass’.

Rogers recorded his therapeutic sessions, analyzed their transcripts, and examined factors related to the therapy outcome. He was the first person to record and publish complete cases of psychotherapy .

Rogers revolutionized the course of therapy. He took the, then, radical view that it might be more beneficial for the client to lead the therapy sessions rather than the therapist; as he says, ‘the client knows what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been buried’ (Rogers, 1961).

Personality Development

Central to Rogers’ personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept . This is “the organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.”

Carl Rogers’ self-concept is a central theme in his humanistic theory of psychology. It encompasses an individual’s self-image (how they see themselves), self-esteem (how much value they place on themselves), and ideal self (the person they aspire to be).

The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner personality, and can be likened to the soul, or Freud’s psyche . The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in their life, and out interpretations of those experiences.

Two primary sources that influence our self-concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.

According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience, and behave in ways consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal self. The closer our self-image and ideal self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth.

Discrepancies between self-concept and reality can cause incongruence, leading to psychological tension and anxiety. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.

The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three components:

Self-worth (or self-esteem ) is the value or worth an individual places on themselves. It’s the evaluative aspect of self-concept, influenced by the individual’s perceived successes, failures, and how they believe others view them.

High self-esteem indicates a positive self-view, while low self-esteem signifies self-doubt and criticism.

Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.

Self-image refers to individuals’ mental representation of themselves, shaped by personal experiences and interactions with others.

It’s how people perceive their physical and personality traits, abilities, values, roles, and goals. It’s their understanding of “who I am.”

How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on our inner personality.

At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image affects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves in the world.

Self-image vs. Real self

The self-image can sometimes be distorted or based on inaccurate perceptions . In contrast, the real self includes self-awareness of who a person truly is.

The real self represents a person’s genuine current state, including their strengths, weaknesses, and areas where they might struggle.

The ideal self is the version of oneself that an individual aspires to become.

It includes all the goals, values, and traits a person deems ideal or desirable. It’s their vision of “who I want to be.”

This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e., forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties.

According to Rogers, congruence between self-image and the ideal self signifies psychological health.

If the ideal self is unrealistic or there’s a significant disparity between the real and ideal self, it can lead to incongruence, resulting in dissatisfaction, unhappiness, and even mental health issues.

Therefore, as per Rogers, one of the goals of therapy is to help people bring their real self and ideal self into alignment, enhancing their self-esteem and overall life satisfaction.

Positive Regard and Self Worth

Carl Rogers (1951) viewed the child as having two basic needs: positive regard from other people and self-worth.

How we think about ourselves and our feelings of self-worth are of fundamental importance to psychological health and the likelihood that we can achieve goals and ambitions in life and self-actualization.

Young woman embraces a big red heart with mindfulness and love. Self acceptance and confidence concept.

Self-worth may be seen as a continuum from very high to very low. To Carl Rogers (1959), a person with high self-worth, that is, has confidence and positive feelings about him or herself, faces challenges in life, accepts failure and unhappiness at times, and is open with people.

A person with low self-worth may avoid challenges in life, not accept that life can be painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded with other people.

Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father. As a child grows older, interactions with significant others will affect feelings of self-worth.

Rogers believed that we need to be regarded positively by others; we need to feel valued, respected, treated with affection and loved. Positive regard is to do with how other people evaluate and judge us in social interaction. Rogers made a distinction between unconditional positive regard and conditional positive regard.

Unconditional Positive Regard

Unconditional positive regard is a concept in psychology introduced by Carl Rogers, a pioneer in client-centered therapy.

Unconditional positive regard is where parents, significant others (and the humanist therapist) accept and loves the person for what he or she is, and refrain from any judgment or criticism.

Positive regard is not withdrawn if the person does something wrong or makes a mistake.

Unconditional positive regard can be used by parents, teachers, mentors, and social workers in their relationships with children, to foster a positive sense of self-worth and lead to better outcomes in adulthood.

For example

In therapy, it can substitute for any lack of unconditional positive regard the client may have experienced in childhood, and promote a healthier self-worth.

The consequences of unconditional positive regard are that the person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it worse at times.

People who are able to self-actualize are more likely to have received unconditional positive regard from others, especially their parents, in childhood.

Examples of unconditional positive regard in counseling involve the counselor maintaining a non-judgmental stance even when the client displays behaviors that are morally wrong or harmful to their health or well-being.

The goal is not to validate or condone these behaviors, but to create a safe space for the client to express themselves and navigate toward healthier behavior patterns.

This complete acceptance and valuing of the client facilitates a positive and trusting relationship between the client and therapist, enabling the client to share openly and honestly.

Limitations

While simple to understand, practicing unconditional positive regard can be challenging, as it requires setting aside personal opinions, beliefs, and values.

It has been criticized as potentially inauthentic, as it might require therapists to suppress their own feelings and judgments.

Critics also argue that it may not allow for the challenging of unhelpful behaviors or attitudes, which can be useful in some therapeutic approaches.

Finally, some note a lack of empirical evidence supporting its effectiveness, though this is common for many humanistic psychological theories (Farber & Doolin, 2011).

Conditional Positive Regard

Conditional positive regard is a concept in psychology that refers to the expression of acceptance and approval by others (often parents or caregivers) only when an individual behaves in a certain acceptable or approved way.

In other words, this positive regard, love, or acceptance is conditionally based on the individual’s behaviors, attitudes, or views aligning with those expected or valued by the person giving the regard.

According to Rogers, conditional positive regard in childhood can lead to conditions of worth in adulthood, where a person’s self-esteem and self-worth may depend heavily on meeting certain standards or expectations.

These conditions of worth can create a discrepancy between a person’s real self and ideal self, possibly leading to incongruence and psychological distress.

Conditional positive regard is where positive regard, praise, and approval, depend upon the child, for example, behaving in ways that the parents think correct.

Hence the child is not loved for the person he or she is, but on condition that he or she behaves only in ways approved by the parent(s).

For example, if parents only show love and approval when a child gets good grades or behaves in ways they approve, the child may grow up believing they are only worthy of love and positive regard when they meet certain standards.

This may hinder the development of their true self and could contribute to struggles with self-esteem and self-acceptance.

At the extreme, a person who constantly seeks approval from other people is likely only to have experienced conditional positive regard as a child.

Congruence & Incongruence

A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what actually happens in life and the experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence.

Where a person’s ideal self and actual experience are consistent or very similar, a state of congruence exists. Rarely, if ever, does a total state of congruence exist; all people experience a certain amount of incongruence.

The development of congruence is dependent on unconditional positive regard. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization, they must be in a state of congruence.

According to Rogers, we want to feel, experience, and behave in ways which are consistent with our self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self.

The closer our self-image and ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-worth. A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.

Incongruence is “a discrepancy between the actual experience of the organism and the self-picture of the individual insofar as it represents that experience.

As we prefer to see ourselves in ways that are consistent with our self-image, we may use defense mechanisms like denial or repression in order to feel less threatened by some of what we consider to be our undesirable feelings.

A person whose self-concept is incongruent with her or his real feelings and experiences will defend himself because the truth hurts.

Self Actualization

The organism has one basic tendency and striving – to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism (Rogers, 1951, p. 487).

Rogers rejected the deterministic nature of both psychoanalysis and behaviorism and maintained that we behave as we do because of the way we perceive our situation. “As no one else can know how we perceive, we are the best experts on ourselves.”

Carl Rogers (1959) believed that humans have one basic motive, which is the tendency to self-actualize – i.e., to fulfill one’s potential and achieve the highest level of “human-beingness” we can.

According to Rogers, people could only self-actualize if they had a positive view of themselves (positive self-regard). This can only happen if they have unconditional positive regard from others – if they feel that they are valued and respected without reservation by those around them (especially their parents when they were children).

Self-actualization is only possible if there is congruence between the way an individual sees themselves and their ideal self (the way they want to be or think they should be). If there is a large gap between these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise that will make it impossible for self-actualization to take place.

The environment a person is exposed to and interacts with can either frustrate or assist this natural destiny. If it is oppressive, it will frustrate; if it is favorable, it will assist.

Like a flower that will grow to its full potential if the conditions are right, but which is constrained by its environment, so people will flourish and reach their potential if their environment is good enough.

However, unlike a flower, the potential of the individual human is unique, and we are meant to develop in different ways according to our personality. Rogers believed that people are inherently good and creative.

They become destructive only when a poor self-concept or external constraints override the valuing process. Carl Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualization, they must be in a state of congruence.

This means that self-actualization occurs when a person’s “ideal self” (i.e., who they would like to be) is congruent with their actual behavior (self-image).

Rogers describes an individual who is actualizing as a fully functioning person. The main determinant of whether we will become self-actualized is childhood experience.

The Fully Functioning Person

Rogers believed that every person could achieve their goal. This means that the person is in touch with the here and now, his or her subjective experiences and feelings, continually growing and changing.

In many ways, Rogers regarded the fully functioning person as an ideal and one that people do not ultimately achieve.

It is wrong to think of this as an end or completion of life’s journey; rather it is a process of always becoming and changing.

Rogers identified five characteristics of the fully functioning person:

Open to experience : both positive and negative emotions accepted. Negative feelings are not denied, but worked through (rather than resorting to ego defense mechanisms).
Existential living : in touch with different experiences as they occur in life, avoiding prejudging and preconceptions. Being able to live and fully appreciate the present, not always looking back to the past or forward to the future (i.e., living for the moment).
Trust feelings : feeling, instincts, and gut-reactions are paid attention to and trusted. People’s own decisions are the right ones, and we should trust ourselves to make the right choices.
Creativity : creative thinking and risk-taking are features of a person’s life. A person does not play safe all the time. This involves the ability to adjust and change and seek new experiences.
Fulfilled life : a person is happy and satisfied with life, and always looking for new challenges and experiences.

For Rogers, fully functioning people are well-adjusted, well-balanced, and interesting to know. Often such people are high achievers in society.

Critics claim that the fully functioning person is a product of Western culture. In other cultures, such as Eastern cultures, the achievement of the group is valued more highly than the achievement of any one person.

Carl Rogers Quotes

The very essence of the creative is its novelty, and hence we have no standard by which to judge it. (Rogers, 1961, p. 351)

I have gradually come to one negative conclusion about the good life. It seems to me that the good life is not any fixed state. It is not, in my estimation, a state of virtue, or contentment, or nirvana, or happiness. It is not a condition in which the individual is adjusted or fulfilled or actualized. To use psychological terms, it is not a state of drive-reduction , or tension-reduction, or homeostasis. (Rogers, 1967, p. 185-186)

The good life is a process, not a state of being. It is a direction not a destination. (Rogers, 1967, p. 187)

Unconditional positive regard involves as much feeling of acceptance for the client’s expression of negative, ‘bad’, painful, fearful, defensive, abnormal feelings as for his expression of ‘good’, positive, mature, confident, social feelings, as much acceptance of ways in which he is inconsistent as of ways in which he is consistent. It means caring for the client, but not in a possessive way or in such a way as simply to satisfy the therapist’s own needs. It means a caring for the client as a separate person, with permission to have his own feelings, his own experiences’ (Rogers, 1957, p. 225)

Frequently Asked Questions

How did carl rogers’ humanistic approach differ from other psychological theories of his time.

Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach differed from other psychological theories of his time by emphasizing the importance of the individual’s subjective experience and self-perception.

Unlike behaviorism , which focused on observable behaviors, and psychoanalysis , which emphasized the unconscious mind, Rogers believed in the innate potential for personal growth and self-actualization.

His approach emphasized empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness in therapeutic relationships, aiming to create a supportive and non-judgmental environment where individuals could explore and develop their true selves.

Rogers’ humanistic approach placed the individual’s subjective experience at the forefront, prioritizing their unique perspective and personal agency.

What criticisms have been raised against Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach to psychology?

Critics of Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach to psychology argue that it lacks scientific rigor and empirical evidence compared to other established theories.

Some claim that its emphasis on subjective experiences and self-perception may lead to biased interpretations and unreliable findings. Additionally, critics argue that Rogers’ approach may overlook the influence of external factors, such as social and cultural contexts, on human behavior and development.

Critics also question the universal applicability of Rogers’ theories, suggesting that they may be more relevant to certain cultural or individual contexts than others.

How has Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach influenced other areas beyond psychology?

Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach has had a significant impact beyond psychology, influencing various areas such as counseling, education, leadership, and interpersonal relationships.

In counseling, his emphasis on empathy, unconditional positive regard, and active listening has shaped person-centered therapy and other therapeutic approaches. In education, Rogers’ ideas have influenced student-centered learning, fostering a more supportive and individualized approach to teaching.

His humanistic principles have also been applied in leadership development, promoting empathetic and empowering leadership styles.

Moreover, Rogers’ emphasis on authentic communication and understanding has influenced interpersonal relationships, promoting empathy, respect, and mutual growth.

What is the current relevance of Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach in modern psychology?

Carl Rogers’ humanistic approach maintains relevance in modern psychology by emphasizing the importance of individual agency, personal growth, and the therapeutic relationship.

It continues to inform person-centered therapy and other humanistic therapeutic modalities. Rogers’ focus on empathy, acceptance, and authenticity resonates with contemporary approaches that prioritize the client’s subjective experience and self-determination.

Additionally, his ideas on the role of positive regard and the creation of a safe, non-judgmental environment have implications for various domains, including counseling, education, and interpersonal relationships.

The humanistic approach serves as a reminder of the significance of the individual’s unique perspective and the power of empathetic connections in fostering well-being and growth.

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Case study: Musings on ‘John,’ his glasses, and existential-humanistic psychotherapy

“John” came to psychotherapy complaining of anxiety, dark moods, and difficulty connecting with others. A slight man, John wore glasses and made little eye contact with me in our our first meeting. When he did make eye contact though, I could not help but notice that he squinted, as if straining to see me.

He quickly detailed a laundry list of things in his life left undone for a number of vague reasons that, to me, were circular and hard to follow. He had not yet filed his divorce papers from a separation four years ago. He left a graduate program and owed the school money. He had been unemployed for several years and needed to find work. He wanted to smoke less marijuana. He needed to be more assertive with a friend, etc. From our first session, John struck me as an incredibly bright individual whose will had atrophied over the years.

Conventional (i.e., medical-model, treatment-focused) thinking in psychotherapy might say something like, “John is depressed, likely because of a chemical dysfunction in his brain. One of his primary symptoms is amotivation . Because he is depressed, he is unable to attend to the matters required of him (e.g., divorce papers, school loans).

While I do not wholly discount this reasoning, as a psychotherapist trained in existential-humanistic psychotherapy, I have a simultaneous, yet different perspective. Irvin Yalom suggested clients often present to psychotherapy feeling disappointed with the way they are living their lives. They experience existential guilt for making decisions that led to only partial fulfillment or complete denial of their potential. This guilt often manifests as depression, anxiety, or a combination of the two. With this in mind, we might say that John’s depression did not cause his lack of motivation, but his lack of motivation—his repeated decision to not act when an action was required—has led to his current depressed state.

Yalom also suggested that the work of psychotherapy is, in part, to re-engage the will of our clients so that they may live more fully within natural human limitations we all face. Additionally, existential-humanistic psychotherapy holds that the client will bring his or her way of being in the world into the consulting room. These ideas came to life when, several sessions into our work together, John began to make more eye contact (a good sign, I thought) and I commented on his squinting.

“Yes, yes,” he said. “It is a real problem. I got these bifocals two years ago and I’ve never been able to see with them.”

“You have gone two years with glasses that don’t help you see?” I asked, somewhat shocked.

“Yes,” he said. “And I think it really contributes to my mood. But there’s nothing I can do about it.”

“How’s that?”

“Well, I suppose I could do something about it,” he responded. “They just don’t fit right and never worked from the start.”

“How often have you thought about doing something about it?” I asked.

“I think about it all the time!” he said. “It drives me crazy, not being able to see.”

As this exchange continued, John attempted to move on to other topics several times. However, I found myself slightly obsessed with his glasses. It seemed like such an important symbol for his struggle to self-motivate. Having worn glasses myself, I found it hard to imagine how John could go so long not seeing clearly. Over and over, I brought us back to the glasses in the here-and-now, gently nudging him to deepen into what it was like for him to have this problem that drove him crazy but not to do anything about it. Although I immediately wanted to help him develop a plan to remedy the situation, I fought the impulse, opting instead to stay in John’s dilemma of inaction with him. I realized that to move too quickly would have been to impose my will on John, rather than waiting for John to come to his own willful action.

Now the reader might expect that I am going to finish this post by writing that John eventually bought new glasses and no longer strains to see me in my office. However, no such luck. What I can say is that John and I have discussed his glasses in subsequent sessions and, at his suggestion, have even discussed options (read choices) available to him to find new glasses. At the same time, in subtle ways, connections between his glasses and other domains of his life replete with unfinished business have been made. All of this feels like progress to me. However, conventional psychology, driven by behavioral outcomes, might argue otherwise. Perhaps it might argue that if I am going to use John’s glasses and his lack of motivation to get a new pair as any kind of indicator at all, then our work has not yet served him. After all, he still can’t see well.

As an existential-humanistic therapist, I guess I see it differently.

Humanistic Psychology’s Approach to Wellbeing: 3 Theories

That sounds quite nice, doesn’t it? Let’s repeat that again.

Humans are innately good.

Driving forces, such as morality, ethical values, and good intentions, influence behavior, while deviations from natural tendencies may result from adverse social or psychological experiences, according to the premise of humanistic psychology.

What does it mean to flourish as a human being? Why is it important to achieve self-actualization? And what is humanistic psychology, anyway?

Humanistic psychology has the power to provide individuals with self-actualization, dignity, and worth. Let’s see how that works in this article.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Meaning and Valued Living Exercises for free . These creative, science-based exercises will help you learn more about your values, motivations, and goals and will give you the tools to inspire a sense of meaning in the lives of your clients, students, or employees.

This Article Contains:

What is the humanistic psychology approach, brief history of humanistic psychology, 10 real-life examples in therapy & education, popular humanistic theories of wellbeing, humanistic psychology and positive psychology, 4 techniques for humanistic therapists, 4 common criticisms of humanistic psychology, fascinating books on the topic, more resources from positivepsychology.com, a take-home message.

Humanistic psychology is a holistic approach in psychology that focuses on the whole person. Humanists believe that a person is “in the process of becoming,” which places the conscious human experience as the nucleus of psychological establishment.

Humanistic psychology was developed to address the deficiencies of psychoanalysis , psychodynamic theory , and behaviorism . The foundation for this movement is understanding behavior by means of human experience.

This entity of psychology takes a phenomenological stance, where personality is studied from an individual’s subjective point of view.

Key focus of humanistic psychology

The tenets of humanistic psychology, which are also shared at their most basic level with transpersonal and existential psychology, include:

Humans cannot be viewed as the sum of their parts or reduced to functions/parts.
Humans exist in a unique human context and cosmic ecology.
Human beings are conscious and are aware of their awareness.
Humans have a responsibility because of their ability to choose.
Humans search for meaning, value, and creativity besides aiming for goals and being intentional in causing future events (Aanstoos et al., 2000).

In sum, the focus of humanistic psychology is on the person and their search for self-actualization .

At this time, humanistic psychology was considered the third force in academic psychology and viewed as the guide for the human potential movement (Taylor, 1999).

The separation of humanistic psychology as its own category was known as Division 32. Division 32 was led by Amedeo Giorgi, who “criticized experimental psychology’s reductionism, and argued for a phenomenologically based methodology that could support a more authentically human science of psychology” (Aanstoos et al., 2000, p. 6).

The Humanistic Psychology Division (32) of the American Psychological Association was founded in September 1971 (Khan & Jahan, 2012). Humanistic psychology had not fully emerged until after the radical behaviorism era; however, we can trace its roots back to the philosophies of Edmund Husserl and Martin Heidegger.

Husserl spurred the phenomenological movement and suggested that theoretical assumptions be set aside, and philosophers and scientists should instead describe immediate experiences of phenomena (Schneider et al., 2015).

Who founded humanistic psychology?

The first phase of humanistic psychology, which covered the period between 1960 to 1980, was largely driven by Maslow’s agenda for positive psychology . It articulated a view of the human being as irreducible to parts, needing connection, meaning, and creativity (Khan & Jahan, 2012).

The original theorists of humanistic theories included Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Rollo May, who postulated that behaviorism and psychoanalysis were inadequate in explaining human nature (Schneider et al., 2015).

Prior to these researchers, Allport, Murray, and Murphy had protested the reductionist movement, including the white laboratory rat as a method for comparing human behavior (Schneider et al., 2015). Influential women in the development of this branch of psychology included Frieden and Criswell (Serlin & Criswell, 2014).

Carl Rogers’s work

Carl Rogers developed the concept of client-centered therapy , which has been widely used for over 40 years (Carter, 2013). This type of therapy encourages the patient toward self-actualization through acceptance and empathetic listening by the therapist. This perspective asserts that a person is fully developed if their self is aligned with their organism (Robbins, 2008).

In other words, a fully functioning person is someone who is self-actualized. This concept is important, as it presents the need for therapy as a total experience.

Rogers’s contribution assisted the effectiveness of person-centered therapy through his facilitation of clients reaching self-actualization and fully functional living. In doing so, Rogers focused on presence, congruence, and acceptance by the therapist (Aanstoos et al., 2000).

The Humanistic Theory by Carl Rogers – Mister Simplify

The human mind is not just reactive; it is reflective, creative, generative, and proactive (Bandura, 2001). With this being said, humanistic psychology has made major impacts in therapeutic and educational settings.

Humanistic psychology in therapy

The humanistic, holistic perspective on psychological development and self-actualization provides the foundation for individual and family counseling (Khan & Jahan, 2012). Humanistic therapies are beneficial because they are longer, place more focus on the client, and focus on the present (Waterman, 2013).

Maslow and Rogers were at the forefront of delivering client-centered therapy as they differentiated between self-concept as understanding oneself, society’s perception of themselves, and actual self. This humanistic psychological approach provides another method for psychological healing and is viewed as a more positive form of psychology. Rogers “emphasized the personality’s innate drive toward achieving its full potential” (McDonald & Wearing, 2013, p. 42–43).

Other types of humanistic-based therapies include:

Logotherapy is a therapeutic approach aimed at helping individuals find the meaning of life. This technique was created by Victor Frankl, who posited that to live a meaningful life, humans need a reason to live (Melton & Schulenberg, 2008).
Gestalt Therapy’s primary aim is to restore the wholeness of the experience of the person, which may include bodily feelings, movements, emotions, and the ability to creatively adjust to environmental conditions. This type of therapy is tasked with providing the client with awareness and awareness tools (Yontef & Jacobs, 2005). This includes the use of re-enactments and role-play by empowering awareness in the present moment.
Existential Therapy aims to aid clients in accepting and overcoming the existential fears inherent in being human. Clients are guided in learning to take responsibility for their own choices. Rather than explaining the human predicament, existential therapy techniques involve exploring and describing the conflict.
Narrative Therapy is goal directed, with change being achieved by exploring how language is used to construct and maintain problems. The method involves the client’s narrative interpretation of their experience in the world (Etchison & Kleist, 2000).

Humanistic psychology has developed a variety of research methodologies and practice models focused on facilitating the development and transformation of individuals, groups, and organizations (Resnick et al., 2001).

The methodologies include narrative, imaginal, and somatic approaches. The practices range from personal coaching and organizational consulting through creative art therapies to philosophy (Resnick et al., 2001).

Humanistic approach in education

The thoughts of Dewey and Bruner regarding the humanistic movement and education greatly affect education today. Dewey proclaimed that schools should influence social outcomes by teaching life skills in a meaningful way (Starcher & Allen, 2016).

Bruner was an enthusiast of constructivist learning and believed in making learners autonomous by using methods such as scaffolding and discovery learning (Starcher & Allen, 2016).

Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences (Resnick et al., 2001) asserts that there are eight different types of intelligence: linguistic, logical/mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. In education, it is important for educators to address as many of these areas as possible.

These psychologists soon set the tone for a more intense focus on humanistic skills, such as self-awareness, communication, leadership ability, and professionalism. Humanistic psychology impacts the educational system with its perspectives on self-esteem and self-help (Khan & Jahan, 2012; Resnick et al., 2001).

Maslow extended this outlook with his character learning (Starcher & Allen, 2016). Character learning is a means for obtaining good habits and creating a moral compass. Teaching young children morality is paramount in life (Birhan et al., 2021).

In concentrating on these aspects, the focus is placed on the future, self-improvement, and positive change. Humanistic psychology rightfully provides individuals with self-actualization, dignity, and worth.

Silvan Tomkins theorized the script theory, which led to the advancement of personality psychology and opened the door to many narrative-based theories involving myths, plots, episodes, character, voices, dialogue, and life stories (McAdams, 2001).

Tomkins’s affect theory followed this theory and explains human behavior as falling into scripts or patterns. It appears as though this theory’s acceptance led to many more elements of experience being considered (McAdams, 2001).

Maslow’s hierarchy of human needs has contributed much to humanistic psychology and impacts mental and physical health . This pyramid is frequently used within the educational system, specifically for classroom management purposes. In the 1960s and 1970s, this model was expanded to include cognitive, aesthetic, and transcendence needs (McLeod, 2017).

Maslow’s focus on what goes right with people as opposed to what goes wrong with them and his positive accounts of human behavior benefit all areas of psychology.

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Although humanistic psychology and positive psychology share the basic ideas of psychological wellbeing – the intent to achieve individual human potential and a humanistic framework – their origins are quite different (Medlock, 2012). Humanistic psychology adds two important elements to the establishment of positive psychology: epistemology and its audience (Taylor, 2001).

Humanistic psychology and positive psychology share many overlapping thematic contents and theoretical presuppositions (Robbins, 2008).

Much of the work in positive psychology was developed from the work in humanistic psychology (Medlock, 2012). Positive psychology was also first conceived by Maslow in 1954 and then further discussed in an article by Martin Seligman (Shourie & Kaur, 2016).

Seligman’s purpose for positive psychology was to focus on the characteristics that make life worth living as opposed to only studying the negatives, such as mental illness (Shrestha, 2016).

Congruence refers to both the intra- and interpersonal characteristics of the therapist (Kolden et al., 2011).

This requires the therapist to bring a mindful genuineness and conscientiously share their experience with the client.

Active listening

Active listening helps to foster a supportive environment. For example, response tokens such as “uh-huh” and “mm-hmm” are effective ways to prompt the client to continue their dialogue (Fitzgerald & Leudar, 2010).

Looking at the client, nodding occasionally, using facial expressions, being aware of posture, paraphrasing, and asking questions are also ways to maintain active listening.

Reflective understanding

Similar to active listening, reflective understanding includes restating and clarifying what the client is saying. This technique is important, as it draws the client’s awareness to their emotions, allowing them to label. Employing Socratic questioning would ensure a reflective understanding in your practice (Bennett-Levy et al., 2009).

Unconditional positive regard

Unconditional positive regard considers the therapist’s attitude toward the patient. The therapist’s enduring warmth and consistent acceptance shows their value for humanity and, more specifically, their client.

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Some may assert that humanistic psychology is not exclusively defined by the senses or intellect (Taylor, 2001).

Humanistic psychology was also once thought of as a touchy-feely type of psychology. Instead, internal dimensions such as self-knowledge, intuition, insight, interpreting one’s dreams, and the use of guided mental imagery are considered narcissistic by critics of humanistic psychology (Robbins, 2008; Taylor, 2001).

Further, studying internal conditions, such as motives or traits, was frowned upon at one time (Polkinghorne, 1992).

Aanstoos et al. (2000) note Skinner’s thoughts concerning humanistic psychology as being the number one barrier in psychology’s stray from a purely behavioral science. Religious fundamentalists were also opposed to this new division and referred to people of humanistic psychology as secular humanists.

Humanistic psychology is sometimes difficult to assess and has even been charged as being poor empirical science (DeRobertis, 2021). That is because of the uncommon belief that the outcome should be driven more by the participants rather than the researchers (DeRobertis & Bland, 2021).

If you find this topic intriguing and want to find out even more, then take a look at the following books.

1. Becoming an Existential-Humanistic Therapist: Narratives From the Journey – Julia Falk and Louis Hoffman

If you’re interested in becoming an existential-humanistic psychologist or counselor, you may want to refer to this collection of therapists and counselors who have already made this journey.

Perhaps you are a student who is considering pursuing this direction in psychology.

Regardless, this book contains reflective exercises for individuals considering pursuing a career as an existential-humanistic counselor or therapist, as well as exercises for current therapists to reflect on their own journey.

Find the book on Amazon .

2. On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy – Carl Rogers

If your intent is to explore client-centered therapy more in depth, you may want to pick up this book by one of humanistic psychology’s founders.

In this text, Rogers sheds light on this important therapeutic encounter and human potential.

3. Man’s Search for Meaning – Viktor Frankl

Also by one of humanistic psychology’s founders, Man’s Search for Meaning provides an explanation of Logotherapy.

With his actual horrific experiences in Nazi concentration camps, Frankl declares that humans’ primary drive in life is not pleasure, but the discovery and pursuit of what they personally find meaningful.

If you’re interested in learning more about the history of humanistic psychology, our article The Five Founding Fathers and a History of Positive Psychology would be an excellent reference, as the roots of humanistic and positive psychology are entangled.

In humanistic psychology, self-awareness and introspection are important. Try using our Self-Awareness Worksheet for Adults to learn more about yourself and increase your self-knowledge.

Journaling is an effective way to boost your internal self-awareness. Try using this Gratitude Journal and Who Am I? worksheet as starting points.

Perhaps you would benefit from our science and research-driven 17 Meaning & Valued Living Exercises . Use them to help others choose directions for their lives in alignment with what is truly important to them.

17 Tools To Encourage Meaningful, Value-Aligned Living

This 17 Meaning & Valued Living Exercises [PDF] pack contains our best exercises for helping others discover their purpose and live more fulfilling, value-aligned lives.

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Humanistic psychology is a total package because it encompasses legends of the field, empirical research, strong philosophical foundations, and arts and literature connections (Bargdill, 2011).

Some may refute this statement, but prior to humanistic psychology, there was not an effective method for truly understanding humanistic issues without deviating from traditional psychological science (Kriz & Langle, 2012).

Humanistic psychology offers a different approach that can be used to positively impact your therapeutic practice or enhance your classroom practice. We hope you find these theories and techniques helpful in facilitating self-actualization, dignity, and worth in your clients and students.

We hope you enjoyed reading this article. Don’t forget to download our three Meaning and Valued Living Exercises for free .

Aanstoos, C. M., Serlin, I., & Greening, T. (2000). A history of division 32: Humanistic psychology. In D. A. Dewsbury (Ed.). History of the divisions of APA (pp. 85–112). APA Books.
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Chapter 6 --Brief Humanistic and Existential Therapies

Humanistic and existential psychotherapies use a wide range of approaches to case conceptualization, therapeutic goals, intervention strategies, and research methodologies. They are united by an emphasis on understanding human experience and a focus on the client rather than the symptom. Psychological problems (including substance abuse disorders) are viewed as the result of inhibited ability to make authentic, meaningful, and self-directed choices about how to live. Consequently, interventions are aimed at increasing client self-awareness and self-understanding.

Whereas the key words for humanistic therapy are acceptance and growth , the major themes of existential therapy are client responsibility and freedom . This chapter broadly defines some of the major concepts of these two therapeutic approaches and describes how they can be applied to brief therapy in the treatment of substance abuse disorders. A short case illustrates how each theory would approach the client's issues. Many of the characteristics of these therapies have been incorporated into other therapeutic approaches such as narrative therapy.

Humanistic and existential approaches share a belief that people have the capacity for self-awareness and choice. However, the two schools come to this belief through different theories. The humanistic perspective views human nature as basically good, with an inherent potential to maintain healthy, meaningful relationships and to make choices that are in the interest of oneself and others. The humanistic therapist focuses on helping people free themselves from disabling assumptions and attitudes so they can live fuller lives. The therapist emphasizes growth and self-actualization rather than curing diseases or alleviating disorders. This perspective targets present conscious processes rather than unconscious processes and past causes, but like the existential approach, it holds that people have an inherent capacity for responsible self-direction. For the humanistic therapist, not being one's true self is the source of problems. The therapeutic relationship serves as a vehicle or context in which the process of psychological growth is fostered. The humanistic therapist tries to create a therapeutic relationship that is warm and accepting and that trusts that the client's inner drive is to actualize in a healthy direction.

The existentialist, on the other hand, is more interested in helping the client find philosophical meaning in the face of anxiety by choosing to think and act authentically and responsibly. According to existential therapy, the central problems people face are embedded in anxiety over loneliness, isolation, despair, and, ultimately, death. Creativity, love, authenticity, and free will are recognized as potential avenues toward transformation, enabling people to live meaningful lives in the face of uncertainty and suffering. Everyone suffers losses (e.g., friends die, relationships end), and these losses cause anxiety because they are reminders of human limitations and inevitable death. The existential therapist recognizes that human influence is shaped by biology, culture, and luck. Existential therapy assumes the belief that people's problems come from not exercising choice and judgment enough--or well enough--to forge meaning in their lives, and that each individual is responsible for making meaning out of life. Outside forces, however, may contribute to the individual's limited ability to exercise choice and live a meaningful life. For the existential therapist, life is much more of a confrontation with negative internal forces than it is for the humanistic therapist.

In general, brief therapy demands the rapid formation of a therapeutic alliance compared with long-term treatment modalities. These therapies address factors shaping substance abuse disorders, such as lack of meaning in one's life, fear of death or failure, alienation from others, and spiritual emptiness. Humanistic and existential therapies penetrate at a deeper level to issues related to substance abuse disorders, often serving as a catalyst for seeking alternatives to substances to fill the void the client is experiencing. The counselor's empathy and acceptance, as well as the insight gained by the client, contribute to the client's recovery by providing opportunities for her to make new existential choices, beginning with an informed decision to use or abstain from substances. These therapies can add for the client a dimension of self-respect, self-motivation, and self-growth that will better facilitate his treatment. Humanistic and existential therapeutic approaches may be particularly appropriate for short-term substance abuse treatment because they tend to facilitate therapeutic rapport, increase self-awareness, focus on potential inner resources, and establish the client as the person responsible for recovery. Thus, clients may be more likely to see beyond the limitations of short-term treatment and envision recovery as a lifelong process of working to reach their full potential.

Because these approaches attempt to address the underlying factors of substance abuse disorders, they may not always directly confront substance abuse itself. Given that the substance abuse is the primary presenting problem and should remain in the foreground, these therapies are most effectively used in conjunction with more traditional treatments for substance abuse disorders. However, many of the underlying principles that have been developed to support these therapies can be applied to almost any other kind of therapy to facilitate the client-therapist relationship.

Using Humanistic and Existential Therapies

Many aspects of humanistic and existential approaches (including empathy, encouragement of affect, reflective listening, and acceptance of the client's subjective experience) are useful in any type of brief therapy session, whether it involves psychodynamic, strategic, or cognitive-behavioral therapy. They help establish rapport and provide grounds for meaningful engagement with all aspects of the treatment process.

While the approaches discussed in this chapter encompass a wide variety of therapeutic interventions, they are united by an emphasis on lived experience, authentic (therapeutic) relationships, and recognition of the subjective nature of human experience. There is a focus on helping the client to understand the ways in which reality is influenced by past experience, present perceptions, and expectations for the future. Schor describes the process through which our experiences assume meaning as apperception ( Schor, 1998 ). Becoming aware of this process yields insight and facilitates the ability to choose new ways of being and acting.

For many clients, momentary circumstances and problems surrounding substance abuse may seem more pressing, and notions of integration, spirituality, and existential growth may be too remote from their immediate experience to be effective. In such instances, humanistic and existential approaches can help clients focus on the fact that they do, indeed, make decisions about substance abuse and are responsible for their own recovery.

Essential Skills

By their very nature, these models do not rely on a comprehensive set of techniques or procedures. Rather, the personal philosophy of the therapist must be congruent with the theoretical underpinnings associated with these approaches. The therapist must be willing and able to engage the client in a genuine and authentic fashion in order to help the client make meaningful change. Sensitivity to "teachable" or "therapeutic" moments is essential.

When To Use Brief Humanistic and Existential Therapies

These approaches can be useful at all stages of recovery in creating a foundation of respect for clients and mutual acceptance of the significance of their experiences. There are, however, some therapeutic moments that lend themselves more readily to one or more specific approaches. The details of the specific approaches are laid out later in this chapter. Client-centered therapy, for example, can be used immediately to establish rapport and to clarify issues throughout the session. Existential therapy may be used most effectively when a client is able to access emotional experiences or when obstacles must be overcome to facilitate a client's entry into or continuation of recovery (e.g., to get someone who insists on remaining helpless to accept responsibility). Narrative therapy may be used to help the client conceptualize treatment as an opportunity to assume authorship and begin a "new chapter" in life. Gestalt approaches can also be used throughout therapy to facilitate a genuine encounter with the therapist and the client's own experience. Transpersonal therapy can enhance spiritual development by focusing on the intangible aspects of human experience and awareness of unrealized spiritual capacity. These approaches increase self-awareness, which promotes self-esteem and allows for more client responsibility, thus giving the client a sense of control and the opportunity to make choices. All of these approaches can be used to support the goals of therapy for substance abuse disorders.

Duration of Therapy and Frequency of Sessions

Although many aspects of these approaches are found in other therapeutic orientations, concepts like empathy, meaning, and choice lie at the very heart of humanistic and existential therapies. They are particularly valuable for brief treatment of substance abuse disorders because they increase therapeutic rapport and enhance conscious experience and acceptance of responsibility. Episodic treatment could be designed within this framework, with the treatment plan focusing on the client's tasks and experience between sessions. Humanistic and existential therapies assume that much growth and change occur outside the meetings. When focused on broader problems, these therapies can be lifelong journeys of growth and transformation. At the same time, focusing on specific substance abuse issues can provide a framework for change and more discrete goals. These techniques will also work well in conjunction with other types of therapy.

Initial Session

Start to develop the alliance
Emphasize the client's freedom of choice and potential for meaningful change
Articulate expectations and goals of therapy (how goals are to be reached)

Developing the alliance can be undertaken through reflective listening, demonstrating respect, honesty, and openness; eliciting trust and confidence; and applying other principles that emerge from these therapies. The therapist's authentic manner of encountering the client can set the tone for an honest, collaborative therapeutic relationship. Emphasizing freedom of choice and potential for meaningful change may be deepened by a focus on the current decision (however it has been reached) to participate in the opening session. Expectations and goals can be articulated through strategic questions or comments like, "What might be accomplished in treatment that would help you live better" or "You now face the choice of how to participate in your own substance abuse recovery."

Because of time constraints inherent in approaches to brief substance abuse treatment, the early phase of therapy is crucial. Unless the therapist succeeds in engaging the client during this early phase, the treatment is likely to be less effective. "Engaging" includes helping the client increase motivation for other aspects of substance abuse treatment such as group therapy. Moreover, the patterns of interaction established during the early phase tend to persist throughout therapy. The degree of motivation that the client feels after the first session is determined largely by the degree of significance experienced during the initial therapeutic encounter. A negative experience may keep a highly motivated client from coming back, whereas a positive experience may induce a poorly motivated client to recognize the potential for treatment to be helpful.

Compatibility of Humanistic And Existential Therapies and 12-Step Programs

Humanistic and existential approaches are consistent with many tenets of 12-Step programs. For example, existential and humanistic therapists would embrace the significance stressed by the "serenity prayer" to accept the things that cannot be changed, the courage to change what can be changed, and the wisdom to know the difference. However, some would argue against the degree to which Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) identifies the person's "disease" as a central character trait, or the way in which some might interpret the notion of "powerlessness." The principles of existentialism, free choice, and free will may appear incompatible with the 12-Step philosophy of acceptance and surrender. Yet, such surrender must result from conscious decisions on an individual's part. The AA concept of rigorous self-assessment--of accepting one's own personal limitations and continually choosing and rechoosing to act according to certain principles as a way of living life--are compatible with both existential and humanistic principles.

Research Orientation

The predominant research strategy or methodology in social science is rooted in the natural science or rational-empirical perspective. Such approaches generally attempt to identify and demonstrate causal relationships by isolating specific variables while controlling for other variables such as personal differences among therapists as well as clients. For example, variations in behavior or outcomes are often quantified, measured, and subjected to statistical procedures in order to isolate the researcher from the data and ensure objectivity. Such strategies are particularly useful for investigating observable phenomena like behavior. Traditional approaches to understanding human experience and meaning, however, have been criticized as an insufficient means to understanding the lived reality of human experience. Von Eckartsberg noted, "Science aims for an ideal world of dependent and independent variables in their causal interconnectedness quite abstracted and removed from personal experience of the everyday life-world" ( Von Eckartsberg, 1983 , p. 199). Similarly, Blewett argued, "The importance of human experience relative to behavior is beyond question for experience extends beyond behavior just as feeling extends beyond the concepts of language" ( Blewett, 1969 , p. 22). Thus, traditional methodological approaches seem ill-suited for understanding the meaning of human experience and the process by which self-understanding manifests itself in the context of a therapeutic relationship.

A humanistic science or qualitative approach, which has its roots in phenomenology, is claimed to be more appropriate for the complexities and nuances of understanding human experience ( Giorgi, 1985 ). The personal and unique construction of meaning, the importance of such subtleties as "the relationship" and the "fit" in therapy, and shifts in internal states of consciousness can be quantified and measured only in the broadest of terms. A more subtle science is required to describe humans and the therapeutic process.

Rather than prediction, control, and replication of results, a humanistic science approach emphasizes understanding and description. Instead of statistical analysis of quantifiable data, it emphasizes narrative descriptions of experience. Qualitative understanding values uniqueness and diversity--the "little stories" ( Lyotard, 1984 )--as much as generalizability or grander explanations. Generally, this approach assumes that objectivity, such as is presumed in rational empirical methods, is illusory. For the qualitative researcher and the therapist, the goals are the same: openness to the other, active participation, and awareness of one's own subjectivity, rather than illusory objectivity. Intersubjective dialog provides a means of comparing subjective experiences in order to find commonality and divergence as well as to avoid researcher bias.

Because humanistic and existential therapies emphasize psychological process and the therapeutic relationship, alternative research strategies may be required in order to understand the necessary and sufficient conditions for therapeutic change. For example, Carl Rogers "presented a challenge to psychology to design new models of scientific investigation capable of dealing with the inner, subjective experience of the person" ( Corey, 1991 , p. 218). Some 50 years ago, he pioneered the use of verbatim transcripts of counseling sessions and employed audio and video taping of sessions long before such procedures became standard practice in research and supervision.

The Humanistic Approach to Therapy

Humanistic psychology, often referred to as the "third force" besides behaviorism and psychoanalysis, is concerned with human potential and the individual's unique personal experience. Humanistic psychologists generally do not deny the importance of many principles of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. They value the awareness of antecedents to behavior as well as the importance of childhood experiences and unconscious psychological processes. Humanistic psychologists would argue, however, that humans are more than the collection of behaviors or objects of unconscious forces. Therefore, humanistic psychology often is described as holistic in the sense that it tends to be inclusive and accepting of various theoretical traditions and therapeutic practices. The emphasis for many humanistic therapists is the primacy of establishing a therapeutic relationship that is collaborative, accepting, authentic, and honors the unique world in which the client lives. The humanistic approach is also holistic in that it assumes an interrelatedness between the client's psychological, biological, social, and spiritual dimensions. Humanistic psychology assumes that people have an innate capacity toward self-understanding and psychological health.

Empathic understanding of the client's frame of reference and subjective experience
Respect for the client's cultural values and freedom to exercise choice
Exploration of problems through an authentic and collaborative approach to helping the client develop insight, courage, and responsibility
Exploration of goals and expectations, including articulation of what the client wants to accomplish and hopes to gain from treatment
Clarification of the helping role by defining the therapist's role but respecting the self determination of the client
Assessment and enhancement of client motivation both collaboratively and authentically
Negotiation of a contract by formally or informally asking, "Where do we go from here?"
Demonstration of authenticity by setting a tone of genuine, authentic encounter

These characteristics may prove useful at all stages of substance abuse treatment. For example, emphasizing the choice of seeking help as a sign of courage can occur immediately; placing responsibility and wisdom with the client may follow. Respect, empathy, and authenticity must remain throughout the therapeutic relationship. Placing wisdom with the client may be useful in later stages of treatment, but a client who is currently using or recently stopped (within the last 30 days) may not be able to make reasonable judgments about his well-being or future.

Each therapy type discussed below is distinguished from the others by how it would respond to the case study presented in Figure 6-1 .

Figure 6-1: A Case Study. This case study will be referred to throughout this chapter. It will provide an example to which each type of humanistic or existential therapy will be applied. Sandra is a 38-year-old African-American woman who has abused (more...)

Client-Centered Therapy

Unconditional positive regard
A warm, positive, and accepting attitude that includes no evaluation or moral judgment
Accurate empathy, whereby the therapist conveys an accurate understanding of the client's world through skilled, active listening
Each individual exists in a private world of experience in which the individual is the center.
The most basic striving of an individual is toward the maintenance, enhancement, and actualization of the self.
An individual reacts to situations in terms of the way he perceives them, in ways consistent with his self-concept and view of the world.
An individual's inner tendencies are toward health and wholeness; under normal conditions, a person behaves in rational and constructive ways and chooses pathways toward personal growth and self-actualization ( Carson, 1992 ).

A client-centered therapist focuses on the client's self-actualizing core and the positive forces of the client (i.e., the skills the client has used in the past to deal with certain problems). The client should also understand the unconditional nature of the therapist's acceptance. This type of therapy aims not to interpret the client's unconscious motivation or conflicts but to reflect what the client feels, to overcome resistance through consistent acceptance, and to help replace negative attitudes with positive ones.

Rogers' techniques are particularly useful for the therapist who is trying to address a substance-abusing client's denial and motivate her for further treatment. For example, the techniques of motivational interviewing draw heavily on Rogerian principles (see TIP 35, Enhancing Motivation for Change in Substance Abuse Treatment [ CSAT, 1999c ], for more information on motivational interviewing).

Response to the case study

A client-centered therapist would engage in reflective listening, accepting the client and her past, and clarifying her current situation and feelings. As Sandra developed trust in the therapist, he would begin to emphasize her positive characteristics and her potential to make meaningful choices to become the person she wants to (and can) become. Another goal of therapy would be to help her develop sufficient insight so that she can make choices that reflect more closely the values and principles to which she aspires. For example, she may want to tell her husband about her symptoms and try to strengthen her marriage.

If Sandra began to feel guilt about her past as a prostitute, the therapist would demonstrate appreciation of her struggle to accept that aspect of herself, highlighting the fact that she did eventually choose to leave it. He may note that she did the best she could at that time and underscore her current commitment to choose a better life. Sandra would be supported and accepted, not criticized. She would be encouraged to express her fear of death and the effect this fear has on her. This might be the first time in her life that someone has been unconditionally accepting of her or focused on her strengths rather than her failings. She apparently has the ability to solve problems, which is reflected by her return to therapy and her insight about needing help. By being understood and accepted, her self-esteem and sense of hope would increase and her shame would decrease. She would feel supported in making critical choices in her life and more confident to resume her recovery.

Narrative Therapy

Narrative therapy emerges from social constructivism, which assumes that events in life are inherently ambiguous, and the ways in which people construct meaning are largely influenced by family, culture, and society. Narrative therapy assumes that people's lives, including their relationships, are shaped by language and the knowledge and meaning contained in the stories they hear and tell about their lives. Recent approaches to understanding psychological growth have emphasized using storytelling and mythology to enhance self-awareness (see Campbell, 1968 ; Feinstein and Krippner, 1997 ; Middelkoop, 1989 ).

Parker and Horton argue that "Studies in a variety of disciplines have suggested that all cognition is inherently metaphorical" and note "the vital role that symbolism plays in perception" ( Parker and Horton, 1996 , p. 83). The authors offer the "perspective that the universe is made up of stories rather than atoms" and suggest, "Myth and ritual are vehicles through which the value-impregnated beliefs and ideas that we live by, and for, are preserved and transmitted" (p. 82). From this perspective, narratives reveal a deeper truth about the meanings of our experience than a factual account of the events themselves. As Feinstein and Krippner note, "Personal mythologies give meaning to the past, understanding to the present, and direction to the future" ( Feinstein and Krippner, 1997 , p. 138).

Helping them become aware of how events in their lives have assumed significance
Allowing them to distance themselves from impoverishing stories by giving new meaning to their past
Helping them to see the problem of substance abuse as a separate, influential entity rather than an inseparable part of who they are (note the discrepancy between this and the AA member's statement, "My name is Jane, and I am an alcoholic")
Collaboratively identifying exceptions to self-defeating patterns
Encouraging them to challenge destructive cultural influences they have internalized
Challenging clients to rewrite their own lives according to alternative and preferred scripts

Narrative therapy can be a powerful approach for engaging clients in describing their lives and providing them with opportunities to gain insight into their life stories and to change those "scripts" they find lacking. Storytelling is a way of articulating a subjective, experiential truth, and it is important for the therapist and client to become aware of the significance of the story being told and its potential therapeutic value.

Narrative approaches to psychological healing have been used across various cultures for thousands of years ( Katz, 1993 ), but they have often been overlooked by mainstream mental health professionals. Contemporary approaches to narrative therapy recognize the importance of understanding how human experience becomes meaningful. A person's life is influenced by the narratives he constructs, which are in turn influenced by the narratives of those around him. Thus, therapy is viewed as a collaborative attempt to increase clients' awareness of the ways in which events in their lives become significant. In effect, the therapist says, "Let's be curious about your story together."

The narrative approach often involves posing questions in a way that situates the problem as an external influence. "When the problem is externalized, it's as if the person can peek out from behind it" ( Nichols and Schwartz, 1998 , p. 412). In substance abuse treatment, for example, a client might be asked, "How has substance abuse influenced your life?" or "Have there been times when you did not allow addiction to take over?" Such questions can help identify positive aspects and potential resources occurring in people's narratives that can be enhanced, as well as deficits that must be overcome.

In an effort to be understood, clients sometimes tell a story as a way of educating the therapist to their culture or lifestyle. Therefore, it is essential for the therapist to appreciate the unique influences (positive and negative) of the client's specific cultural experiences and identity. Often these stories do not constitute sharing in its usual meaning. When listening to them, one may sense that these stories have been told repeatedly over the years. It is through this sense of storytelling--as oral history--that we reveal our values, expectations, hopes, and fears. For the therapist, a story provides insight into the clients' responses, their need to act on the responses, and their desire to be heard or understood. A story can become a way for a client to become both participant and observer in order to find new solutions or break down barriers.

The therapist may initially ask Sandra to describe some of the important transitional moments in her life. These may include examples of loss of innocence occurring early in her life, her experience of school, circumstances and influences surrounding prostitution and drug use, the experience of being supported by her husband, and internal resources that enabled her to enter treatment and maintain sobriety. The therapist would ask questions about expectations she felt from family, society, and herself. She may be asked questions like, "How did addiction interfere with your attempts to be a good mother" or "How has fear contributed to your recent relapse and feelings of hopelessness?" Positive aspects of her story and exceptions to destructive aspects of her narrative could be identified by asking questions like, "Were there times that you didn't allow addiction to make choices for you?" and "How has your ability to accept love and support from your husband helped you?"

The focus of therapeutic dialog could then shift toward developing alternatives to hopeless aspects of personal and cultural expectations. It would be helpful to remind her that recent advances in medical treatments mean that AIDS may not be the death sentence it was once thought to be. Other important questions can help her to begin to create an alternative story: "As you begin to understand the positive and negative influences in your life, what qualities must you possess in order to remain sober and develop better relationships with your husband and children?" She may need help replacing these stories with more positive narratives about herself. As Sandra talks about the people and events in her life, such as her childhood and her children, she can discover some of her feelings, as well as the personal meaning in her story. She can experience a great deal of healing through the therapist's feedback and questions that uncover the desires and emotions beneath her story. A continued focus on identifying, practicing, or even imagining changes in her story can begin the process of developing new ways of living.

Transpersonal Therapy

Transpersonal psychology emerged as a "fourth force" in psychology in the late 1960s and has strong roots in humanistic and existential psychologies, Jungian analysis, the East-West dialog, and ancient wisdom traditions. Transpersonal therapy may be thought of as a bridge between psychological and spiritual practice.

A transpersonal approach emphasizes development of the individual beyond, but including, the ego. It acknowledges the human spiritual quest and recognizes the human striving for unity, ultimate truth, and profound freedom. It cultivates intuitive ways of knowing that complement rational and sensory modes. This approach also recognizes the potential for growth inherent in "peak" experiences and other shifts in consciousness. Although grounded in psychological theory, transpersonal practitioners also tend to incorporate perspectives from ancient wisdom traditions.

Transpersonal psychotherapy is an approach to healing and growth that recognizes the centrality of the self in the therapeutic process.
Transpersonal psychotherapy values wholeness of being and self-realization on all levels of the spectrum of identity (i.e., egoic, existential, transpersonal).
Transpersonal psychotherapy is a process of awakening from a limited personal identity to expanded universal knowledge of self.
Transpersonal psychotherapy makes use of the healing restorative nature of subjective awareness and intuition in the process of awakening.
In transpersonal psychotherapy, the therapeutic relationship is a vehicle for the process of awakening in both client and therapist.
Exploration of "inner voices" including those of a higher self that provides guidance for growth of the individual ( Rowan, 1993 )
Refinement of intuition or nonrational knowing
Practice of creativity in "formal" (art) or informal (personal relationships) encounters
Loving service
Cultivation of mindfulness
Use of dreams and imagery

These techniques may be taught and supported explicitly in the therapy session. At times, a therapist may directly cultivate shifts in consciousness (e.g., through meditation [ Weil, 1972 ], or imaginal work [ Johnson, 1987 ]), providing immediate insight and inspiration that may not be available through more conventional means ( Hart, 1998 ). This may provide clients with a skill they can practice on their own; initiating such activity represents a potential for brief intervention.

Transpersonal therapy recognizes the need for basic psychological development to be integrated with spiritual growth ( Nelson, 1994 ). Without such integration there is danger of "spiritual bypassing," where issues of basic psychological functioning are avoided in the name of spiritual development. In other words, the basic psychological work should be undertaken first.

Substance abuse disorders may be seen broadly as an attempt to fill a spiritual void. They may also be understood as a means for the ego to defend itself against a natural drive for growth. If growth were to occur, the ego might find its dominance relinquished. Addiction, like spirituality, also raises questions of surrender (May, 1991): for example, to what and to whom do we surrender? In a culture and a psychology that are dominated by issues of rational ego control, what is the role of constructive surrender (regularly described in spiritual traditions)? How does constructive surrender become destructive and distorted in substance dependency? In addition, substance abuse may be understood as a means for shifting out of a normal waking state of consciousness. This may be an attempt to fulfill an innate drive ( Weil, 1972 ) for nonrational consciousness.

As the existentialists remind us, there is nothing like death to rivet our attention. A glimpse of death--for example, seeing the aftermath of a serious car crash--reminds the witness of how valuable life is, bringing up other issues as well. Sandra is now confronted with death due to AIDS. This opportunity to face death and life squarely provides a chance to reconsider and reprioritize her life. In fact, it could be argued that the best catalyst to brief therapy may be a death sentence precisely because it has the potential to wake up an individual. In many respects, helping the client wake from habitual, mechanical routines that are often based on ego protection and move toward an appreciation that the individual is not bound to or defined by a limited ego, is the goal of transpersonal therapy. This can be seen as a transformation of identity.

Many inspiring instances of people facing death, including death through AIDS, have shown that emergent spirituality can change the quality and direction of existence very quickly. For treatment, the basic sharing of these experiences with a group of others in a similar predicament often quickly moves the client beyond isolation and a sense of self-separateness to connect intimately with others who understand her situation. This community may not only bring comfort and support but also a deep sense of communion with humanity. In this instance, breaking through the shell of isolation may enable Sandra to begin to make new connections with her family and with herself. A sense of interconnection, a central postulate and experience in the wisdom traditions, may replace her perceived isolation.

Sandra may use this opportunity of facing possible death to begin to encounter and let go of such feelings as guilt, shame, disappointment, and anger that have kept her life less satisfying than it could be. Accessing the imaginal through art or dreams, for example, can provide a clear and symbolic expression of unresolved issues. The use of rituals or rites-of-passage inspired by the wisdom traditions can provide some catalyst for shifting her consciousness through forgiveness and release.

The therapist may engage in a wide variety of methods (e.g., imagery, art, or dream work, meditation, rituals), but the heart of the work is in the simple and humane spirituality that is embodied by the therapist's loving presence along with the therapist's openness to explore the full range of human experience directly. For Sandra, this experience may be seen as an opportunity for practicing love and forgiveness, moving out from behind rigid self-separateness, facing fears, and transforming her self-definition.

Gestalt Therapy

The organism should be seen as a whole (physical behavior is an important component, as is a client's mental and emotional life).
Being in the "here and now" (i.e., being aware of present experience) is of primary importance.
How is more important than why (i.e., causes are not as important as results).
The individual's inner experience is central.
For Gestalt therapists the "power is in the present" ( Polster and Polster, 1973 ). This means that the "now" is the only place where awareness, responsibility, and change can occur. Therefore, the process of therapy is to help the client make contact with the present moment.

Rather than seeking detailed intellectual analysis, the Gestalt therapist looks to create a "safe emergency" in the therapeutic encounter. Perls' invocation to "lose your mind and come to your senses" implies that a feeling-level, "here and now" experience is the optimal condition for therapeutic work. This may be accomplished in a fairly short amount of time by explicitly asking clients to pay attention (e.g., "What are you aware of now? How does your fear feel to you?"). The therapist may point out how the client could be avoiding the present moment through inauthentic "games" or ways of relating such as "talking about" feelings rather than experiencing them directly. Clients may be asked to exaggerate certain expressions (e.g., pounding a fist) or role-play certain internal dialogs (e.g., through an empty chair technique). These may all serve the goal of helping clients move into the immediacy of their experience rather than remaining distant from it through intellectualization or substance abuse.

The term contact in Gestalt refers to meeting oneself and what is other than oneself. Without appropriate contact and contact boundaries there is no real meeting of the world. Instead, one remains either engulfed by the world on one hand or, on the other hand, distant from the world and people.

Experiencing the need
Mobilization of energy
Satisfaction

Treatment involves bringing awareness to each of these dimensions and the client's strategies of avoidance.

Substance abuse may also be understood as "introjection" in which the client attempts to "swallow whole" or "drink in" his environment without contact and discrimination. This type of client bypasses and blocks other experiences that might enable contact and the development of discrimination. Perls maintains that such a client seeks immediate confluence without preparatory contact. This pattern of interaction extends to other relationships (besides the substance) as well.

In order for this work to proceed, the therapist must maintain a fine-tuned, present-moment immediacy, even serving as a "resonance chamber" ( Polster and Polster, 1973 ) for the client's experience. They, too, must be able to make and sustain contact with the client and with their own reactions.

The Gestalt therapist begins with Sandra's current experience of the world, starting with awareness and attention. The therapist may simply help her become aware of basic sights, sounds, somatic reactions, feelings, and thoughts as well as what her attention drifts to. The immediate contact between therapist and client is a component of the "now" where these sensations are explored directly. The therapist might notice and ask about her style of eye contact, or her fidgeting body, or stream of thoughts (e.g., "What is it like to make eye contact now? What is the sensation in your body at this moment?").

Sandra may also identify certain issues such as substance abuse, relationship difficulties, and the threat of death from AIDS that seem to dominate her life. The therapist might invite her to name and explore the sensation that the thought of death, for example, brings; perhaps this involves a sense of a void, or feeling cold and dark, or a feeling of engulfment. She then may be asked to become these sensations--for example, the therapist may ask her to be "the void" and encourage her to speak as if she were that void. This may then open possibilities for a dialog with the void through acting out the opposite polarity: separateness and choice. This might involve using an empty chair technique in which the client would literally move into the chair of the "void," speak as if she were that, and then move into an opposite chair and respond in a dialog. A therapist could also explore her introjection through questions such as, "How is this void different or the same as from the feeling of alcohol or in relationships with your children or husband?" She might also use this same technique to dialog with family members, or certain aspects of herself.

Sandra seems to have a great deal of "unfinished business" that involves unexpressed feelings (e.g., anger, longing, hurt). Experimentation with these sensations may begin to free her to express and meet these feelings more directly. All of this work encourages Sandra's experimentation with new ways of relating both during and outside of the session in order to move into the "here and now" and work toward the resolution of "unfinished business."

The Existential Approach To Therapy
All persons have the capacity for self-awareness.
As free beings, everyone must accept the responsibility that comes with freedom.
Each person has a unique identity that can only be known through relationships with others.
Each person must continually recreate himself. The meaning of life and of existence is never fixed; rather, it constantly changes.
Anxiety is part of the human condition.
Death is a basic human condition that gives significance to life.

The core question addressed in existential therapy is "How do I exist?" in the face of uncertainty, conflict, or death. An individual achieves authenticity through courage and is thus able to define and discover his own meaning in the present and the future. There are important choices to be made (e.g., to have true freedom and to take responsibility for one's life, one must face uncertainty and give up a false sense of security).

A core characteristic of the existential view is that an individual is a "being in the world" who has biological, social, and psychological needs. Being in the world involves the physical world, the world of relationships with others, and one's own relationship to self ( May and Yalom, 1995 , p. 265). The "authentic" individual values symbolization, imagination, and judgment and is able to use these tools to continually create personal meaning.

Existential therapy focuses on specific concerns rooted in the individual's existence. The contemporary existential psychotherapist, Irvin Yalom, identifies these concerns as death, isolation, freedom, and emptiness. Existential therapy focuses on the anxiety that occurs when a client confronts the conflict inherent in life. The role of the therapist is to help the client focus on personal responsibility for making decisions, and the therapist may integrate some humanistic approaches and techniques. Yalom, for example, perceives the therapist as a "fellow traveler" through life, and he uses empathy and support to elicit insight and choices. He strongly believes that because people exist in the presence of others, the relational context of group therapy is an effective approach ( Yalom, 1980 ).

Preliminary observations and research indicate individuals with low levels of perceived meaning in life may be prone to substance abuse as a coping mechanism. Frankl first observed this possibility among inpatient drug abusers in Germany during the 1930s (Frankl, 1959). Nicholson and colleagues found inpatient drug abusers had significantly lower levels of meaning in life when compared to a group of matched, nonabusing control subjects ( Nicholson et al., 1994 ). Shedler and Block performed a longitudinal study and found that lower levels of perceived life meaning among young children preceded substance abuse patterns in adolescence ( Shedler and Block, 1990 ).

In the context of treating substance abuse disorders, the existential therapist often serves as a coach helping the client confront the anxiety that tempts him to abuse substances. The client is then focused on taking responsibility and making his own choices to remain substance free. If he chooses to avoid the anxiety through substances, he cannot move forward to find truth and authenticity. The challenge for the existential therapist is to help the client make personal decisions about how to live, drawing upon creativity and love, instead of letting outside events determine behavior.

Time and Existential Therapy

Although existential therapy may not have been designed for practice in a time-limited fashion, its underlying principles relating to the client's struggle for meaning in the face of death can be applied to a time-limited setting. Brief therapy (no matter what the modality) must be concerned with the "here and now." Both existential and brief therapies are also concerned with the limitations of time. Hoyt suggests that in brief therapy time should always be an issue for discussion, and the therapist should make a point of reminding the client of his use of time and the time scheduled for terminating therapy (Hoyt, 1995).

Mann's model of time-limited psychotherapy ( Mann, 1973 ; Mann and Goldman, 1994 ), although based in part on psychodynamic theory, also uses an existential approach to the primacy of time. In Mann's approach, the time limitation of brief therapy is emphasized to help the client confront issues of separateness and isolation. This facilitates the client's becoming engaged in and responsible for the process of recovery.

An existential therapist may help Sandra understand that her diagnosis of AIDS forces her to confront the possibility of death and, consequently, face the responsibilities thrust upon her by life. The therapist could accomplish this by helping her understand that her life (like everyone else's) is finite. Therefore, she is challenged to forge meaning from her life and make difficult decisions about her relationships and ways of dealing (or not dealing) with choices about substance abuse. The focus in her therapy would be on choosing the life she wants to live. The therapist would assist her in dealing constructively with anxiety so that she can find meaning in the rest of her life. This could be accomplished by engaging her in the struggle to assume authorship of her choices. She may be encouraged to "play out" scenarios of choices she faces and acknowledge the accompanying fears and anxieties. She might be asked, "What keeps you from sharing your fears with your husband, and accepting the possibility of his support?" or "Imagine yourself expressing your love for your children and regret for the mistakes you have made." Thus, the therapist would help her understand that making difficult choices in the face of death is actually a way to find integrity, wholeness, and meaning.

The teachings of the existential therapist, Yalom, can be a useful resource in dealing with issues related to death, since he has worked with terminally ill cancer patients for many years, helping them to use their crisis and their danger as an opportunity for change (Yalom, 1998). Yalom explains that although death is a primary source of anxiety for a client, incorporating death into life can enrich life and allow one to live more purposefully.

Cite this Page Center for Substance Abuse Treatment. Brief Interventions and Brief Therapies for Substance Abuse. Rockville (MD): Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (US); 1999. (Treatment Improvement Protocol (TIP) Series, No. 34.) Chapter 6 --Brief Humanistic and Existential Therapies.
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How Humanistic Psychology Can Help You Live a Better Life

Hallmarks include an emphasis on free will and human potential

Other Types of Humanism

How to Use It
Possible Pitfalls

While many approaches to psychology tend to focus on problematic behaviors and mental health conditions, one approach takes a more positive approach. Humanistic psychology is a perspective that emphasizes looking at the whole individual and stresses concepts such as free will, self-efficacy, and self-actualization.

Rather than concentrating on dysfunction, humanistic psychology strives to help people fulfill their potential and maximize their well-being.

Keep reading to learn more about the historical roots of this perspective, as well as some of the important concepts that have emerge from humanistic psychology. We'll also explore some ways that you can use the humanistic approach to help life a more positive and fulfilling life.

A Brief Background of Humanistic Psychology

This area of psychology emerged during the 1950s as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which had dominated psychology during the first half of the century. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious motivations that drive behavior, while behaviorism studied the conditioning processes that produce behavior.

Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take into account the role of personal choice.

However, it is not necessary to think of these three schools of thought as competing elements. Each branch of psychology has contributed to our understanding of the human mind and behavior.

Humanistic psychology added yet another dimension that takes a more holistic view of the individual.

Humanism is a philosophy that stresses the importance of human factors rather than looking at religious, divine, or spiritual matters. Humanism is rooted in the idea that people have an ethical responsibility to lead lives that are personally fulfilling while at the same time contributing to the greater good of all people.

Humanism places human values and dignity front and center. According to this approach, people can resolve problems through science and reason. Rather than looking to religious traditions, humanism focuses on helping people live well, achieve personal growth, and make the world a better place.

The term "humanism" is often used more broadly, but it is also significant in several different fields, including psychology.

Religious Humanism

Some religious traditions incorporate elements of humanism as part of their belief systems. Examples of religious humanism include Quakers, Lutherans, and Unitarian Universalists.

Secular Humanism

Secular humanism rejects all religious beliefs, including the existence of the supernatural. This approach emphasizes the importance of logic, the scientific method, and rationality in understanding the world and solving human problems.

Uses for Humanistic Psychology

Humanistic psychology focuses on each individual's potential. Concepts like personal growth and self-actualization are hallmarks of the humanistic approach.

The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency.

Humanistic psychology also suggests that people possess personal agency and that they are motivated to use this free will to pursue things that will help them achieve their full potential as human beings.

The need for fulfillment and personal growth is a key motivator of all behavior. People are continually looking for new ways to grow, to become better, to learn new things, and to experience psychological growth and self-actualization.

Some of the ways that humanistic psychology is applied within the field of psychology include:

Humanistic therapy : Several different types of psychotherapy have emerged rooted in humanist principles. These include client-centered therapy, existential therapy, and Gestalt therapy .
Personal development : Because humanism focuses the importance of self-actualization and reaching one's full potential, it can be used as a tool of self-discovery and personal development.
Social change : Another important aspect of humanism is improving communities and societies. For individuals to be healthy and whole, it is important to develop societies that foster personal well-being and provide social support.

Impact of Humanistic Psychology

The humanist movement had an enormous influence on the course of psychology and contributed new ways of thinking about mental health. It offered a new approach to understanding human behaviors and motivations and led to the development of new techniques and approaches to psychotherapy .

Some of the major ideas and concepts that emerged as a result of the humanistic psychology movement include an emphasis on things such as:

Client-centered therapy : An approach to therapy in which a therapist takes a non-directive, non-judgmental role
Free will: The ability to act autonomously to make independent choices that are freely chosen
Fully functioning person : An individual who has reached their full potential and is living an open and authentic life
Hierarchy of needs : A theory that describes five levels of needs that motivate human behavior
Peak experiences : Transcendent moments marked by feelings of awe, joy, and wonder
Self-actualization: Reaching your full potential as an individual
Self-concept : The image we have of ourselves, including our unique characteristics, behaviors, and talents
Unconditional positive regard : Showing total acceptance for another person without judgment

How to Apply Humanistic Psychology

Some tips from humanistic psychology that can help people pursue their own fulfillment and actualization include:

Discover your own strengths
Develop a vision for what you want to achieve (having a vision board can help!)
Consider your own beliefs and values
Pursue experiences that bring you joy and develop your skills
Learn to accept yourself and others
Focus on enjoying experiences rather than just achieving goals
Keep learning new things
Pursue things that you are passionate about
Maintain an optimistic outlook

One of the major strengths of humanistic psychology is that it emphasizes the role of the individual. This school of psychology gives people more credit for controlling and determining their state of mental health.

It also considers environmental influences. Rather than focusing solely on our internal thoughts and desires, humanistic psychology also credits the environment with influencing our experiences.

Humanistic psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy and made it more acceptable for normal, healthy individuals to explore their abilities and potential through therapy.

Potential Pitfalls of Humanistic Psychology

While humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy, education, healthcare, and other areas, it has not been without some criticism.

For example, the humanist approach is often seen as too subjective. The importance of individual experience makes it difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic phenomena. How can we objectively tell if someone is self-actualized? The answer, of course, is that we cannot. We can only rely upon the individual's assessment of their experience.

Another major criticism is that observations are often unverifiable; there is no accurate way to measure or quantify these qualities. This can make it more difficult to conduct research and design assessments to measure hard-to-measure concepts.

History of Humanistic Psychology

The early development of humanistic psychology was heavily influenced by the works of a few key theorists, especially Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Other prominent humanist thinkers included Rollo May and Erich Fromm.

In 1943, Abraham Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in "A Theory of Human Motivation" published in Psychological Review. Later during the late 1950s, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists held meetings to discuss developing a professional organization devoted to a more humanist approach to psychology.

They agreed that topics such as self-actualization, creativity, individuality, and related topics were the central themes of this new approach. In 1951, Carl Rogers published "Client-Centered Therapy," which described his humanistic, client-directed approach to therapy. In 1961, the Journal of Humanistic Psychology was established.

It was also in 1961 that the American Association for Humanistic Psychology was formed, and by 1971, humanistic psychology became an APA division.

In 1962, Maslow published "Toward a Psychology of Being," describing humanistic psychology as the "third force" in psychology. The first and second forces were behaviorism and psychoanalysis, respectively.

Today, the concepts central to humanistic psychology can be seen in many disciplines including other branches of psychology, education, therapy, political movements, and other areas. For example, transpersonal psychology and positive psychology both draw heavily on humanist influences.

The goals of humanism are just as relevant today as they were in the 1940s and 1950s, Humanistic psychology continues to empower individuals, enhance well-being, push people toward fulfilling their potential, and improve communities all over the world.

Schneider KJ, Pierson JF, Bugental JFT. The Handbook of Humanistic Psychology: Theory, Research, and Practice . Thousand Oaks: CA: SAGE Publications; 2015.

Thibault GE. Humanism in medicine: What does it mean and why is it more important than ever? Acad Med . 2019;94(8):1074-1077. doi:10.1097/ACM.0000000000002796

Maslow AH. A theory of human motivation . Psychological Review. 1943;50(4):370-396. doi:10.1037/h0054346

Joseph S. How humanistic is positive psychology? Lessons in positive psychology from Carl Rogers' person-centered approach-It's the social environment that must change . Front Psychol . 2021;12:709789. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.709789

By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

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A-Level Psychology Revision Notes >

The Humanistic approach -A-Level Psychology

The humanistic approach:.

-an approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each person’s capacity for self determination.

Table of Contents

The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external factors and act as active agents.Humanistic psychologists reject scientific models that establish general principles of human behaviour as everyone is unique.

Self-actualisation:

The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one’s full potential.All four lower levels have to be met for self-actualisation to occur.Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become fulfilled ,satisfied,and goal orientated.

The self,congruence and conditions of worth:

Rogers argued that for personal growth to occur an individual’s self(the way they see themselves)has to be in congruence with their ideal self.If the gap is too big ,the person will experience incongruence and negative feelings meaning that self-actualisation can’t be reached.

Conditions of worth-when a parent places limits or boundaries on their love of their children.

Evaluation:

Cultural bias-the humanistic approach would be applicable to individualist cultures more than to collectivist cultures which may not easily identify with the ideas of humanistic psychology.

Not reductionist-Humanists reject any attempt to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components,instead they advocate holism(the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person).This approach has more validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-life context.

The Humanistic approach is a psychological perspective that emphasizes the unique experiences and potential for growth of the individual. It suggests that people have free will and are capable of making choices that can lead to personal growth and self-actualization.

The key figures associated with the Humanistic approach in A-Level Psychology are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.

The Humanistic approach differs from other psychological perspectives in A-Level Psychology, such as the psychodynamic and behavioral approaches, by emphasizing the subjective experiences of the individual and their potential for self-growth and self-actualization, rather than focusing on unconscious processes or external stimuli.

Some practical applications of the Humanistic approach in A-Level Psychology include person-centered therapy, which emphasizes the importance of the therapist-client relationship and the client’s self-exploration, and positive psychology, which focuses on promoting well-being and resilience through interventions such as gratitude journaling and mindfulness meditation.

Studying the Humanistic approach in A-Level Psychology can benefit you by providing you with a deeper understanding of human behavior and the human experience, and by equipping you with practical skills for promoting personal growth and well-being. Additionally, knowledge of the Humanistic approach may be useful for those considering careers in counseling or mental health.

You can apply the Humanistic approach in your own life by focusing on your personal growth and self-actualization, and by making choices that align with your values and goals. This might involve practicing self-reflection, setting realistic goals for yourself, and seeking out opportunities for personal development and self-expression.

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Existential-Humanistic Case Conceptualization & Treatment Planning

This is the slides for a Saybrook Residential Conference Workshop on existential-humanistic diagnosis, case formulation, case conceptualization, and treatment planning. It draws upon two presentations of a research project on this topic.

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A case study is presented here to give the reader a vivid, lived experience of how E-H therapy actually unfolds between clients and therapists. The case by Orah Krug and her client Mimi illustrates how E-H therapists: a) develop responsiveness to clients' feelings, experiences and protective patterns, b) develop collaborative and safe therapeutic relationships with clients, c) assess client motivation, level of functioning and capacity for presence and c) work with levels of self-protections and associated wounds by focusing on process over content. The case also illustrates how E-H therapists attain the goals of expanded experiential awareness and real therapeutic change by cultivating genuine encounters in which both clients and therapists are personally and relationally present. E-H therapists cultivate presence to three dimensions of experience and process: a) the personal or subjective dimensions of both client and therapist, (i.e., a focus on "self"), b) the interpersonal or relational dimension, (i.e., a focus on the "in-between" field of client and therapist), and c) the ontological or cosmological dimension, (i.e., an existential focus on "the world"). Being present to all three dimensions of experience and process is crucial-all three dimensions are "actual" in the present moment and provide entry into the feelings and world of the client. Without presence there may be intellectual, behavioral or physiological change but not necessarily the sense of agency or personal involvement that "whole-bodied" transformation requires.

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Evidence-Based Practice in Psychology (EBPP) is the new zeitgeist in evaluating the effectiveness and appropriateness of different modalities of psychotherapy. Although many existential-humanistic therapists and scholars are critical of EBPP, it is important to take seriously the issues of accountability in therapy practice. Certainly, EBPP is a significant improvement from prior models and alternatives, such as the empirically supported treatments. The purpose of this paper is threefold. First, we challenge existential-humanistic psychology to find ways to authentically engage in the professional dialogues about EBPP, outcomes in psychotherapy, and the need for accountability. In particular, it is essential that we actively engaged in defining what it means to be an evidence-based approach to psychotherapy. Second, we advocate for a particular understanding of EBPP that challenges some of the current definitions being employed yet is consistent with the criteria established by the original American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Evidence-Based Practice (2006) appointed by Ron Levant during his term as president of the American Psychological Association. Shortly after this task force published its original document in the American Psychologist, Wampold, Goodheart, and Levant (2007) warned that it would be easy for the definitions of EBPP to regress to the old, more restrictive models of evaluating psychotherapy practice. Indeed, this is what has often occurred. We maintain that it is essential for existential-humanistic psychologists not to merely respond critically to the idea of EBPP, but to also be active in offering alternative models for evaluating psychotherapy practices and be engaged in creating inclusive approaches to understanding EBPP that are robust enough to be appropriate for evaluating a wide range of therapy practices seeking diverse therapeutic outcomes. Finally, we argue that existential-humanistic therapy can rightly be considered an evidence-based practice even when utilizing rather conservative interpretations of what this means. Hoffman, L. Dias, J., & Choi Soholm, H. (2012, August). Existential-humanistic therapy as a model for evidence-based practice. In S. Rubin (Chair), Evidence in support of existential-humanistic psychology: Revitalizing the ‘third force.’ Symposium presented at the 120th Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association, Orlando, FL.

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In a narrative-oriented constructivist case formulation, the information produced by the description of the concepts —updated and specific subject/object/context relationships— that constitute the therapeutic problem is organized, registering the variations with respect to criteria agreed upon by the patient. and the therapist for ongoing therapy evaluation. This approach attends to changes in the way of applying, confirming or refuting concepts, of organizing them referentially into ontological categories, and of narratively integrating knowledge between these categories. In this type of formulation, the use of refutable hypotheses is recorded based on explicit objectives, establishing formats for qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the general process. Next, three of the basic notions of the psychotherapeutic problem characterization used in this approach will be explained (Díaz Olguín, 2022): conceptual organization, closure/stress processes and arrests in narrative integration.

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Humanistic Leadership Practices

Exemplary Cases from Different Cultures

© 2024
Pingping Fu 0

University of Nottingham Ningbo China, Ningbo, China

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Outlines humanistic leadership and explains how it differs from other leadership theories
Chapters form case studies of humanistic leadership in eleven different societies around the world
Promotes humanistic leadership as a model that enables employees to thrive and businesses to sustain

Part of the book series: Humanism in Business Series (HUBUS)

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About this book

This edited volume offers a comprehensive analysis of humanistic leadership, bringing together authors with experience working in different cultures to demonstrate that humanistic leadership exists everywhere and has enabled companies to sustain all over the world.

There is a high volume of evidence that executive education has significant influence in the decisions of executives and upper managers in business, government and other institutions. However, in spite of the many different leadership theories in existence, there is a severe deficit of research and literature addressing the specific needs of organizations for integrating the human dimension. This book highlights different cultural case studies from around the world to demonstrate that humanistic leadership is the model that best enables employees to thrive and businesses to sustain. Part of the popular Humanism in Business series, this book will be of great interest to academics, students and practitioners of leadership and human resources.

“People are realizing that leadership today requires more than just managing an organization well for the purpose of maximizing profit. In this important book, several authors explore the defining characteristics and behavior of what are becoming known as ‘humanistic leaders’. Humanistic Leadership in Different Cultures is a powerful and inspiring accompaniment to bodies of work about servant leadership and quantum leadership, and adds the dimension about how these are practiced in different cultures. I recommend it highly.”

Danah Zohar , Author of The Quantum Leader and Zero Distance
transformational leadership
corporate social responsibility
strategic management
organizational behaviour

Table of contents (12 chapters)

Front matter, introduction.

Pingping Fu

Individual Humanistic Leaders

Faith, family, and firm: a case study of bob chapman.

Cazembe Monds, Leigh Anne Liu

Humanistic Leadership in the Amish Community: Leading from the Edge

Charles Keim, Masoud Shadnam

Confucian Humanistic Leadership: Social Influence Processes and Trickle Effects

Wan-Ju Chou

Multiple Humanistic Leaders in Different Cultures

Humanistic leadership in africa: a relational ideal of maat.

Baniyelme D. Zoogah

Are Hidden Champions Humanistic?—A Reflection on Humanistic Leadership in Germany

Christopher Gohl, Jonathan Keir, Dirk C. Moosmayer

Humanistic Leadership: A UAE Perspective

Yaprak Anadol

Caring for Employees and Society: Exemplifications of Humanistic Leadership Values in Japan

Kaori Ono, Jusuke J. J. Ikegami

Organizational Flourishing Through the Lens of Three Top Executives in Colombia: How They Relate to the Inner Development Goals-IDGs

Carlos Largacha-Martinez

Humanistic Leadership and the Paradoxical Pursuit of Sustainability and Profitability: A Case Study of the Tata Group in India

Ritu Tripathi, Anjana Karumathil

Humanistic Practices

Engaging employees through cultivating habitual behaviours: humanistic leadership practices at the fotile group.

Boxiang Lin, Pingping Fu, Bo Yang

Achieving UNSDG Goals Through Humanistic Practices: The Case of Good-Ark Electronics Corp. Ltd. in China

Jianing Han, Pingping Fu, Qing Qu

Back Matter

Editors and affiliations, about the editor.

Pingping Fu is a Professor of Business at Nottingham University Business School China. She was a board member of the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavioral Effectiveness (GLOBE) research project team and has led a dozen research projects supported by grants from Hong Kong government. Her works have been published in various journals, including the Administrative Science Quarterly, Journal of International Business Studies, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Leadership Quarterly, Management International Review, and Organizational Dynamics.

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Humanistic Leadership Practices

Book Subtitle : Exemplary Cases from Different Cultures

Editors : Pingping Fu

Series Title : Humanism in Business Series

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-34366-7

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Business and Management , Business and Management (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

Hardcover ISBN : 978-3-031-34365-0 Published: 01 March 2024

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-031-34368-1 Due: 15 March 2025

eBook ISBN : 978-3-031-34366-7 Published: 29 February 2024

Series ISSN : 2662-124X

Series E-ISSN : 2662-1258

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XVIII, 328

Number of Illustrations : 12 b/w illustrations, 4 illustrations in colour

Topics : Human Resource Management , Business Ethics , Business Strategy/Leadership

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Sustainability management accounting in urban development: a case study of an egyptian state-owned enterprise.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 3. the egyptian context, 4. theoretical framework, 5. methodology, 6. analysis, 6.1. broader urban development pressures for sustainability management accounting.

Before the revolution, characterised by corruption, favouritism, mediation, and dubious political relationships, the public sector’s SOEs were without a dependable management accounting system to oversee and regulate the corporate sustainability KPIs mandated by the government. The NAG’s antiquated management accounting system, although computerised, was not interconnected across the various corporate and governmental strata engaged in national urban development projects. This lack of networking facilitated frequent manipulations by both veteran NAG executives and high-ranking ministry officials, leading to chaos in reporting corporate sustainability practices or related KPIs and in decision-making processes. Such disorganisation contributed to NAG’s financial and executive shortcomings in urban development, ultimately impeding its ability to fulfil its social objectives for the public community as an SOE.

Previously, the company lacked a corporate SMA system and only had scattered, ineffective management accounting practices focused mainly on performance measurement and control rather than sustainability accounting and management accountability during urban development governance. These traditional practices were internally focused and not used by the national government for external decision-making. Government decision-makers and associated SOEs viewed organisational management accounting reports merely as performance evaluations or variance reports, which played no part in urban development decision-making processes. The significance of management accounting in sustainable urban development diminished until the second Egyptian revolution in 2013…

…Post-2013, with the country’s shift towards new political, military, and governmental visions emphasising corporate sustainability in urban development, management accounting and accountants became integral to the successful SMA systems implemented in SOEs from early 2019. From 2013 to 2019, the public sector and associated SOEs underwent a period of sustainability transition. During this time, numerous structural and organisational reforms were implemented within SOEs, including corporate SMA reforms, to comply with new government mandates for national urban development. Consequently, a corporate SMA system has been established within NAG’s daily management accounting routines. This system is operated through an advanced ERP platform, recognised as NAG’s SMA system. The new system was launched through a collaboration between the SMA committee of NAG and Said Co. for Technology, one of our private-sector financial partners, and it officially went into operation on 4 January 2019.

The SMA system is enhanced by a sophisticated, interconnected ERP platform. Unlike before, this operational platform is dedicated to digitally collecting, monitoring, and reporting NAG’s sustainability performance indicators in urban development. The upgraded system enables the SMA committee’s management accountants to both authenticate the reliability of sustainability KPIs and guarantee their transparency to the public. Corporate sustainability KPIs, previously hidden, are made public, thereby increasing the transparency, governance, and accountability of urban development initiatives overseen by the national government and its SOEs.

Currently, the central government and urban development financial partners such as the IMF require specific sustainability KPIs, making it essential to integrate a corporate SMA system. These KPIs are crucial for maintaining the company’s control environment, risk assessment, monitoring activities, and information and communication regarding sustainability. Unlike before, the SMA committee’s management accountants are now required to ensure corporate compliance with integrity and ethics, evaluate risks and fraud, and implement extensive controls over technology and policies. Additionally, they must ensure the communication of relevant information both internally and externally, conduct ongoing assessments, and identify and report any deficiencies. Hence, in contrast to the pre-SMA system, the role of management accountants has evolved to become a central figure in corporate sustainability within urban development.

Unlike before, NAG’s SMA system has markedly decreased fraud among management accountants in corporate SMA/KPIs reporting. The adoption of a corporate SMA system, coupled with relevant KPIs, has normalised the everyday responsibilities of committee management accountants. This is achieved through a consistent procedural protocol via ERP, thereby tackling the previously observed fraud issues in corporate SMA reporting within past urban development initiatives.

In 2020, ERP aided the SMA committee’s management accountants in incorporating KPI2, which focuses on transparency and stakeholder engagement, into NAG’s SMA system. During this period, the IMF requested an SMA report on the public sector’s SOEs to assess their sustainability practices in urban development. The IMF used the SMA/KPIs report to evaluate the SOEs’ effectiveness in implementing national urban development projects and to decide on their financial allocations. A gap related to KPI2, crucial for accurate corporate sustainability evaluations, was noted in the report by the IMF. As a result, the IMF deferred the financial contributions to the SOEs, including NAG, for about three months until the SMA committee’s accountants refined the SMA framework with KPI2 and presented a revised report to the IMF. This event highlights the importance of implementing an SMA system with pertinent KPIs for well-informed funding decisions and reinforces the role of management accountants, as well as the significance of integrating ERP in corporate sustainability within urban development.

6.2. Local Implementation of a Sustainability Management Accounting System in Urban Development Pressures

NAG’s history of failures and the prior chairwoman’s internal manipulations necessitated intervention by the central government, specifically the public sector ministry, in NAG’s internal operations. This intervention marked the beginning of efforts to halt these failures and fraudulent activities. The government, especially the new public sector minister, has dismissed the former chairwoman and her corrupt associates from their positions. Moreover, they have been sentenced to three years by a government court for embezzling public funds and abusing their official capacities for personal gain, contrary to the collective and societal objectives pursued by the government. This has led to the initiation of corporate sustainability reforms within the ministry and NAG via management accounting.

Traditional management accounting methods have not kept pace with the demands of national urban development financing, the evolving role of management accountants in corporate sustainability, or their involvement in the national government’s decision-making processes. With the intensifying pressures of government financing, our senior management faced challenges with the public sector ministry, particularly as the adoption of government KPIs at the national level became obligatory for SOEs engaged in urban development, including NAG. The senior management opted to transition to a new SMA system that incorporates innovative and previously unused techniques like sustainability risk management, sustainability performance measurement, sustainability financial governance, and sustainability internal control. These novel techniques are designed to complement, not replace, existing management accounting methods such as ratio analysis, variance analysis, and cost analysis, thereby supporting corporate sustainability and decision-making. ERP has enabled the NAG’s SMA committee to integrate various techniques into a unified procedural protocol that aligns with the existing routines of its executive members, thus combatting fraud and corruption in corporate SMA reporting.

The ERP platform has structured the operational framework for an SMA system, incorporating new corporate sustainability practices through various channels. These channels encompass innovative practices in risk management, performance measurement, financial governance, and internal control. On the daily ERP interface, one can view these SMA channels within our operational portal, symbolising the recently implemented daily corporate sustainability practices in urban development that inform government financing decisions.

Sustainability risk management practices empower management accountants to develop appropriate responses and engage employees in risk management. These practices also facilitate the provision of daily reports on the effectiveness of sustainability risk management. This is achieved through daily operational movement reports that the SMA committee delivers to NAG senior management at the end of each working day. Should any potential issues emerge, management accounting strategies are implemented to address them.

Beyond this, with the advent of new financial governance practices, management accountants are instrumental in formulating appropriate financial sustainability strategies and projections. They are responsible for furnishing senior management with daily financial performance reports and engaging with pertinent departments to address any unforeseen financial discrepancies in project budgets. In doing so, management accountants ensure stringent governance and accountability in national urban development financing.

The SMA committee conducts two types of sustainability internal control reports: daily and quarterly. The daily report is dispatched at the close of each workday through the ERP platform to key decision-makers at NAG and the public sector ministry, to assess daily operations and make necessary decisions. ERP extends beyond just the SMA committee’s management accountants; it is an integrated platform that encompasses various parties involved in NAG’s national urban development projects. This includes executive departments at the NAG level and key decision-makers at the NAG and ministry levels, who are equipped to oversee daily sustainability performance and make necessary interventions remotely…

…The quarterly report monitors progress in the company’s internal sustainability control measures over the previous three months, compared to the preceding quarter. This report extends beyond the company’s senior management and the ministry, unlike the daily report which serves corporate governance and accountability. It is also shared with various significant funders and public accountability authorities at the national level, confirming NAG’s dedication to internal control practices for corporate sustainability in urban development.

In 2021, SMA reports indicated a marked improvement in corporate sustainability in the context of national urban development, despite senior management’s apprehensions about the potential sustainability risks posed by COVID-19. This unexpected boost in sustainability performance during the difficult times of the pandemic prompted senior management to provide financial bonuses and extra incentives to employees. The goal was to motivate them to stay resilient and overcome the challenges brought by the pandemic, while still advancing internal sustainability practices amid the pressures of national urban development financing.

Another management accountant, A2, cited another example, saying:

In 2022, amid the aftermath of the pandemic, SMA reports underscored the concerns of management accountants about potential financial sustainability risks facing the company. These concerns stemmed from possible fluctuations in both local and international markets over the next two years. Acting as a warning signal, these concerns led the senior management to increase NAG’s reserves from USD 3 million to USD 3.8 million, aiming to safeguard against the anticipated risks in urban development.

7. Discussion

8. conclusions, 9. implications and future research, author contributions, data availability statement, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Click here to enlarge figure

Job Titles	Codes	Categories	Age	Qualifications	Experience	Main Interviews (2021)	Ex-Post Interviews (2022)	Duration	Recorded or Notes Taken
Job Titles	Codes	Categories	Age	Qualifications	Experience	Number of Interview(ee)s		Duration	Recorded or Notes Taken
Chairman	P1	politician	56 years	PhD	20 years	1	-	2 h	recorded
Board director	M1	military	53	PhD	19	1	1	1.30	noted
Deputy board director	P2	politician	52	PhD	18	1	-	1.15–1.30	recorded
Urban development manager	M2	military	51	MPhil	15	1	1	1	recorded
SMA committee manager	A1	public administrator	51	CPA, ACCA	16	2	1	1	noted
SMA committee accountant	P3	politician	40	ACCA	10	1	-	2	recorded
SMA committee accountant	M3	military	43	MBA	13	2	1	1.30	recorded
SMA committee accountant	A2	public administrator	45	MSc	12	2	1	2	recorded
SMA committee accountant	A3	public administrator	50	CPA	10	1	-	1.30	noted
SMA committee accountant	P4	politician	42	CMA	11	2	-	2	noted
ERP manager	P5	politician	52	ACCA	15	1	1	1.45–2	recorded
Sustainability risk manager	A4	public administrator	49	ACMA	13	1	-	1.30	recorded
Sustainability financial manager	A5	public administrator	45	MSc, CIA	14	-	1	1	recorded
Sustainability performance manager	P6	politician	47	Diploma	11	-	1	1.15	recorded
Sustainability internal controls manager	A6	public administrator	43	MBA	17	-	1	1.20	noted
SMA reporting manager	P7	politician	48	MBA	15	-	1	1.45	recorded
Military delegate for urban development	M4	military	53	PhD	16	1	-	2	noted

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Alsaid, L.A.Z.A.; Mutiganda, J.C. Sustainability Management Accounting in Urban Development: A Case Study of an Egyptian State-Owned Enterprise. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 8235. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188235

Alsaid LAZA, Mutiganda JC. Sustainability Management Accounting in Urban Development: A Case Study of an Egyptian State-Owned Enterprise. Sustainability . 2024; 16(18):8235. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188235

Alsaid, Loai Ali Zeenalabden Ali, and Jean Claude Mutiganda. 2024. "Sustainability Management Accounting in Urban Development: A Case Study of an Egyptian State-Owned Enterprise" Sustainability 16, no. 18: 8235. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16188235

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