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Western Civilization: A Concise History Volume 1

(7 reviews)

Christopher Brooks, Portland Community College

Publisher: Portland Community College

Language: English

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Reviews prior to 2024 are for a previous edition.

Reviewed by Denise Griffin, Adjunct Faculty / ABE Program Coordinator and Instructor, Holyoke Community College on 6/29/21

The text is comprehensive while being concise. The courses I teach need more breadth than depth which this text has. I think that my students will enjoy the informal diction. The style of writing makes for enjoyable, interesting reading while... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Content Accuracy rating: 5

The text is accurate although because it is concise, does not include some of the finer detail on topics that an instructor may choose to clarify.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

The text is up to date and written in a format that lends itself to being updated easily.

Clarity rating: 4

For my Freshman student population, accessible prose is important and I think this text does an excellent job of that. It also explains any terms the students may not know. As others have stated, there is no index or glossary.

Consistency rating: 4

Most chapters have a conclusion but not all. I think the overall format is good, but wish that there were some questions for critical thinking or to test a student's understanding of the content.

Modularity rating: 5

The text is broken down into logical modules that would be easy to teach as a stand alone lesson. The text also seems to have the right amount of diagrams and pictures associated with the module topic to enhance learning.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 4

The organization of the material is well thought out with good flow through the modules. I would like to see those thought provoking questions and self-test questions included though.

Interface rating: 5

I experienced no interface issues. Someone commented on another text that it was easily accessible on their phone which might be due to lack of pictures and diagrams. I did not test this text on a phone and do not know if the images would slow downloading.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

Overall grammar is correct. It is an informal writing style that I think my students will enjoy.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

I do not see the text as being culturally insensitive, at the same time there could be more information about how race and ethnicity played a role in history. There is some information about the roles and treatment of women in the cultures, but having more information would be beneficial. The goal was to be concise, but I think this area could use some more information.

I like the text and plan on using it in my classes. I will supplement with more information about how different races, ethnicity, and sexes were treated. I think more on slavery throughout history would be beneficial. I see some mention in the section about Sparta but not much else where. I think it is important to know who was being enslaved and how the slaves were treated in various cultures. I acknowledge that the goal was to be concise, and I will supplement in areas I want to cover in more detail.

Reviewed by Nikolas Hoel, Instructor, Northeastern Illinois University on 5/11/21

Comprehensiveness rating: 3 see less

For the immense project the text aspires to take on, the end product achieves a level of comprehensiveness that is on par with most print-based texts of a similar nature. That said, there is room for improvement. The text could easily expand to take a more global perspective that is predominant in the field of pre-modern history today. Approach the material as "The West in the World,' might prove to be more useful to instructors who are moving more towards that direction in their own understandings of the period. The other main issue is that there is little reference to or inclusive of primary sources in the text. The analysis of primary sources is key to developing not just as a historian, but as a critical thinker more generally. The text as written seems to provide the opportunity to include these types of materials and they should be considered for future updates and editions.

Within the constraints listed above, the content is historically accurate and reflects current consensus of scholars in the field. It might be beneficial to be more forthright about the reality that everything in the text and in the field generally is an interpretation and that those interpretations change over time. Of course, no text is perfect, but the few and minor errors in accuracy by meticulous intervention by the instructor with their own interpretations.

The text is up-to-date, and should be easily updated in the form that it exists now. The best updates would be to add primary source material, further readings sections, and a glossary. As it is in this format, contributors should be able to keep the book consistent with trends in the field, particularly as pre-modern history becomes more global.

This prose is adequately clear. The logic that links the sections and chapters together is fairly easy to follow. The only issue, as has been raised in other places in this review, is that there is no term list of glossary. This made not be much concern to many students who have grown up in the "western tradition" and are familiar with the terms and concepts from previous experience and education, but as the demography of college students changes, if might be worth considering the renewed importance of such tools.

Consistency rating: 5

The terminology is consistent with the purposes and framework of the text. It is also current with the standards for the field at this time, which lends the text to be used as a gateway for further study, as intro courses can often serves as recruiting tools for majors. The consistency of the text will aid continuing students well.

The modularity is perhaps the strongest aspect of this text. The chapters are easy to follow and the layout of that modularity throughout the entirety of the book is fairly consistent. Furthermore, the navigational side bar to the left reflects the modularity well and allows quick reference and navigation.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 3

The organization within each chapter is satisfactory. The bigger concern is the organization of the three-volume work as a whole. Granted it is based on a quarter not a semester system, but division of the volumes still seems problematic. The chunks are far too big. Further, if it were divided into more volumes, sections could be used for more specific classes on narrower periods of time. For example, there are few OER textbooks for medieval history, and a simple reorganization of the chapters, would facilitate those courses. Finally, far too much is packed into the chapters on medieval society as opposed to those on ancient or later periods. More depth in these areas would help improve the overall usability of the text.

Interface rating: 3

The general aspects of the interface for the text is fine. The navigational panels to the left side are effective and easy to use. Further the charts, maps, and images are free from distortion. The main problem is not what is here, but what is not. The text is limited with no glossary and bibliography or list of further readings. There are many terms and concepts in "Western Civilization" that may not be familiar to students, especially those outside of that tradition, and which find their way necessarily into this text. These could easily be hyperlinked for more easy of access, not only to definitions, but also to understanding. It should be noted that I only viewed the text on a desktop and other issues may exist when using a mobile device as so many students do.

Grammatical Errors rating: 4

Overall, the text is free from grammatical errors. That said, at some points the sentence structure is odd, which may distract students or limit comprehension, especially of non-native speakers of English.

Cultural Relevance rating: 3

The text is fairly inclusive and certainly is more so than more tradition, paper-based textbooks. Yet, the movement in the field is towards placing ancient and medieval Europe in their more global context, and this text could present those themes a little more clearly. The book does problematize the concept of the "West" in the introduction, which is important and necessary, but it would be stronger if it followed though more completely on the promises that section seems to make.

Reviewed by Robert Harrison, Instructor of History, Linn-Benton Community College on 6/25/20

The text is very comprehensive in terms of the number of civilizations and cultures covered. In fact, I wonder if even a 16-week semester would suffice to cover them. It is gratifying to see a fairly detailed chapter on Islamic civilization. The text is also quite comprehensive in its survey of political and military events. Empires like those of the ancient Hittites receive more coverage than would be typical in a Western Civilization survey. However, to little attention is given to artistic, literary, and cultural life in general. Brief thumbnail sketches of topics like Greek art and drama just don't go far enough. The lives of ancient women are mentioned in a number of places, but without enough detail. The orientation of the text is clearly from the top on down, with an emphasis on dynasties, rulers, and their wars and conquests. One example is the list of Egyptian rulers and their accomplishments, which are important, to be sure, but daily life, while mentioned in various cultures, is given too little attention, as are topics like the construction of the pyramids. One example is the statement that slaves probably didn't build the pyramids of Giza, which is accurate, but substantially more information than that is now available regarding the lives of workers. Another example is how the rise of Hebrew monotheism receives a fair summary, but almost entirely from biblical texts, without much reference to archaeology. The lack of even short excerpts from key primary documents is also a problem, as is the need for more maps.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

The text was quite accurate in most regards, though the statement in the introduction about most histories of Western Civilization starting with the Greeks doesn't match my experience. I don't think I have ever seen a text which doesn't begin with Neolithic events and then moves to Mesopotamian civilizations. Recent archaeology also should be reflected more often in the text. For example, the work at Gobleki Tepe in Turkey has challenged traditional explanations of how the rise of farming and civilization arose in sequence. Another problem area was the description of the life of Jesus as having been miraculous based on statements of some gospels. The earliest gospel, that of Mark, does not include any of the legends of the nativity, and historians don't describe events like the visitation and annunciation as historical. The statement that the young Jesus showed great aptitude for theology is likewise not historically responsible. We really know nothing of Jesus' early life. The author would do well to consult the work of the Jesus Seminar, whose founder, Dr. Robert Funk, has estimated that 18% of the sayings of Jesus recorded in the gospels is accurate. The problematic nature of the gospels as historical sources needs some attention in the text.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

There is a need to incorporate recent archaeological evidence and the work of other social sciences in order to bring the text truly up to date. One example is the area of Biblical archaeology, which has challenged the traditional explanation of the rise of Hebrew monotheism in interesting ways, most importantly the notion that Yahweh was worshiped with Asherah as a consort. These discoveries are now decades old. I also think the text needs a substantial increase in the coverage of gender and class, with more attention paid to the daily lives and contributions of women, workers, and slavery.

Clarity rating: 5

I found no problems with the clarity and style of the text, and especially appreciated the lack of jargon.

Although I have problems with the degree to which the text centers historical events from a ruling class perspective, I must agree that the approach is consistent. I would recommend much more of a "people's history" approach.

Sections of the text could easily be assigned in smaller sections without losing a sense of clear organization. Chapter subheadings are clear and there are rarely more than 3-4 pages assigned to each subheading.

Topics are generally listed clearly; the chronology works well. However, I think the text would more effective with blocks of primary documents to break up the narrative. More charts and maps would also relieve the flow of one page full of text after another. Images are critical to a students' grasp of major themes, not just one the flow of events.

Interface rating: 4

I was pleased with the easy interface of mostly maps in the text, though at least one map lacked a key to the expansion of an empire.

Grammar and style are generally not a problem, and the book seems to be at an appropriate level for college readers. However, a few sentences could raise problems, such as this one from page 204: "Christianity united self-understood "Western Civilization" just as Roman culture had a few centuries earlier."

The text's problems with cultural relevance do not stem from dismissive or insensitive references, but much more from its default perspective: that of male rulers (with exceptions of course) and how history is grouped around their actions.

Despite some shortcomings, the author certainly deserves praise for a highly readable and accurate survey of a vast period of history.

Reviewed by David Henry Paradis, Senior Instructor, University of Colorado Boulder on 6/11/20

Comprehensiveness rating: 2 see less

The comprehensiveness of this work is somewhat uneven. Some topics, such as ancient Sumeria and the Greeks resemble similar treatments in other concise editions. Other topics, such as the medieval religion, medieval state building, and the defining features of Germanic and Celtic cultures are noticeably weak or absent. The author acknowledged that his background in the history of political theory influenced his focus on political history. He acknowledges the book’s lack of coverage of topics related to gender, social relations, and cultural development. One way to appreciate Brooks’ contribution is that it constitutes an initial edition, ready for emendations and improvements. Although it has been traditional to provide an index in paper textbooks, it seems less necessary in an electronic source that one can easily search. Nevertheless, a glossary with hyperlinks to somewhat specialized terms, such as a redistributive economy, would be a benefit for many students.

Content Accuracy rating: 3

Any textbook that covers the scope of material included in these volumes will have a few inaccuracies, or it will offer explanations that cause a specialist to cringe. Nevertheless, Brooks’ treatment of complex historical developments, such as the disintegration of the Western Roman Empire, not only was lucid and brief but also demonstrated familiarity with recent works on the subject. On a few topics, this mastery of the material was not as evident, especially in matters medieval: the use of Latin was not confined to written communications between intellectuals in Europe during the Middle Ages; scholars across Europe continued to speak Latin into the early modern period. Similarly, the only impact of the Fourth Crusade was not the weakening of Byzantium; the Venetians carved out a trade empire that lasted for centuries.

One of the strengths of OER textbooks is that the author can allow derivative publications with acknowledgement. This volume provides a much-needed OER textbook for survey courses in European History. Similar to most texts in this genre, this concise history begins in the ancient Near East, where the first agricultural revolution or farming package transformed human material and social conditions. It then proceeds from the dawn of civilization around 3,500 BCE to cover Ancient Greece and Rome before covering medieval and early modern Europe in volume 2. Because the presentation of material in these volumes resembles the standard canon for Western Civilization textbooks, it is likely to attract supporters who seek to transform this first edition into an even stronger revision.

Clarity rating: 3

In some regards the terminology used is quite clear. For example, the section on the early Middle Ages refers to the Church of Rome as “the Latin Church,” and it explains why the term “Catholic” is not necessarily appropriate for this period. Overall, the writing is generally clear and efficient in its coverage of the material. However, in some passages the language could be clearer, more formal, more concise, and more precise. In some passages typos, such as “sword” instead of “sworn,” and poor word choices undermine the professional presentation of the material. In others, references to customs and traditions as “things” (the word appears 42 times in volume 1) or to wars among the Hellenistic successor states as “feuding” are ripe for editorial revision. In still other instances, the language is just a little too colloquial: “huge” and “hugely” make a combined 46 appearances in volume 1. Finally, the text refers to medieval peasants as "farmers," a term that is somewhat anachronistic for the period.

Consistency rating: 3

Although the coverage of the ancient world was fairly robust, coverage of early medieval Europe was too cursory. This uneven coverage limited the continuity of the analysis. For example, the text mentioned the importance of bureaucracy in maintaining political stability in the ancient world but failed to note the significance of its development within medieval Europe in general or in Anglo-Saxon England or in the Ottonian empire in particular. While Anglo-Saxon history has arguably occupied too large a position in previous accounts of Western Civilization, the diminution to just two paragraphs appears to be an over-correction, especially to this English medievalist. When one considers that the textbook is essentially an introduction to European history, it is hard to understand why the Mongol Empire, fascinating as it is, receives more attention than the Anglo-Saxon or Ottonian states.

Modularity rating: 3

The chapter headings and foci are excellent. The tripartite division of the volumes makes lots of sense, even though most Western Civilization courses have two parts, one modern and one pre-modern. It seems that if one is going to employ this tripartite division of periods that the divisions would fall along the lines of ancient, medieval, and modern. Given that the early Middle Ages functioned as a sort of crucible for European Civilization that fused the Greco-Roman, barbarian, and Christian customs and traditions, it would make sense to begin volume 2 there instead of the period around 1000 when that medieval culture started to transform into a civilization.

The organizational structure of this Western Civilization textbook is in some ways superior to many of the more elaborate textbooks. The chapters on the Byzantine Empire and the Islamic Caliphate, for example, address these entities over the course of several centuries without interrupting their development to focus on other polities. Consequently, the narrative and analysis remain unbroken in contrast to some books that jump back and forth between the Byzantines, the Muslims, and the barbarian successor states during the Middle Ages. With that back and forth approach, students often lose some of the continuity of the Byzantines and the Muslims. Brooks’ organizational structure makes especial sense for those courses that have only one class on the Caliphate and another on Byzantium.

The PDF version of the textbook worked very well. It integrated easily into our institution’s learning management system (LMS). Students were able to access it without issues.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

Although the number of grammatical errors was fairly small, the prose periodically borders on wordy or unclear forms of expression. A more thorough editing could improve the quality of the prose quite a bit.

Since the 1980s introductory courses in European history often address the racist and imperialist assumptions that initially fashioned the concept of Western Civilization. Brooks addresses this unfortunate legacy in the first dozen pages of volume 1. Similarly, his treatment of the rise and influence of Islam begins with an explanation of the similarities between Islam and Christianity and with a brief accounting of the West’s indebtedness to Islamic scholars during the Middle Ages. In addition, Brooks pointed out that his own background in intellectual political history has limited his ability to address cultural history and gender relations adequately. Admitting that his treatment of these issues might fall short for some readers, he has given permission to use this work as a foundation for derivative works according to OER guidelines.

Reviewed by Nicole V. Jobin, Instructor, University of Colorado Boulder on 6/11/20

The text includes an introduction and thirteen chapters covering the history of Western Civilization from the Origins of civilization in Mesopotamia through the era of the Viking invasions in Western Europe. The introduction frames the entirety of the text as if the reader were going to use all three volumes. This introduction highlights the issue of where the study of western civilization came from and why it is still relevant, while also pointing out the ways in which the text seeks to put Europe into context by acknowledging contributions, contacts, and influences from an area that extends well beyond “the west.” Perhaps the most interesting statement in the introduction is the examination of why Western Civilization even exists as a field of study, relating it to the era in which it first appeared (the 20th c.) as a distinct set of textbooks and courses in American universities. Chapters cover Mesopotamia, Egypt, The Bronze and Iron Age civilizations of the Near East, Greek and Roman civilizations, the advent of Christianity, the early Byzantine Empire, the advent and early spread of Islam, and the kingdoms of Early Medieval Europe. As the title indicates, the text is concise. It is also primarily focused on political and intellectual history, with occasional forays into economic, religious, and women’s history. There is no index or glossary for this text.

The content of this text appears to be accurate and in-line with the narrative of published works on this subject, which usually begin with early hominids and the rise of agriculture, though some subjects are treated with more detail than others. One example that shows that this material is up to date is the reference to recent changes in our understanding of early hominids, for instance. Errors mentioned by a reviewer of the first edition have been corrected in the February 2020 edition. Since this is a concise history, some topics necessarily are treated in very short form. As with all survey texts, the story is presented a bit too much as a narrative with most of the questions already answered, and little references to sources, but this is more a problem of the genre of survey textbooks than with this textbook in particular. A bibliography or indications for further reading would help to flesh out the sense that the information in the text is well researched (which it appears to be) and provide the message more clearly to students that works such as this are based on research, not just a retelling of static, uninterpreted facts.

The reading level is appropriate for entry-level college students and the material is consistent with the subject areas typically covered in the beginning portion of the survey course. In order to use this text in a semester-based course, a portion of Volume 2 would also be necessary. It is clear that the author has made some attempt to bring in new scholarship where relevant and on a limited basis. This is not usually something that is done on a large scale except with major revisions to traditional Western Civilization texts every few years. Here, the author has already completed one revision since the original publication of the text a year or so ago.

The language is clear and accessible. Students are introduced to new terms and concepts in ways that make meanings clear. Highlighting terms that are likely to be unfamiliar, or providing a vocabulary list at the end of each chapter might increase this accessibility further, but the text itself does provide good cues.

The text is consistent in terminology, focus, and framework. Chapters follow similar patterns as the text moves through its chronological narrative.

Modularity rating: 4

The organizational structure is built on a chronological narrative that would make taking chapters out of order somewhat nonsensical. That being said, if an instructor was teaching a version of the course where certain topics were not included or that extended beyond the end of the text, it would be fairly easy to take chapters out or add some from the next volume to achieve the desired coverage. At the chapter level, more subheadings would be helpful.

The sequencing is logical and consistent with other introductory texts in the field, though occasionally the flow within a section is a bit disrupted. For instance, in the section on Egypt, the political chronology of the Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and New Kingdom is divorced from the discussion of continuity (mostly cultural) that follows in a way that some historians might find less than optimal.

The selection of maps and photographs is well chosen to illustrate the chapters, though a few more illustrations would be welcome. While these maps and photos are clearly labeled, citation of sources for each item clearly visible in the descriptive text with the titles would be welcome. Right now the citation list appears at the end of each chapter which makes it less integral and less visible to students who need to learn about proper citation both in OER and for other formats. Providing some statistical or data visualization items could expand the usefulness of the text for explaining to students the different methods of historical analysis available to historians.

Few, if any, grammatical errors of significance are present.

Within the confines of the topic of Western Civilization, which is necessarily focused on Western Europe, this text appears to be mostly inclusive. The author makes a clear statement in the introduction that he has expanded coverage of areas that interacted with and influenced Europe, as well as looking in later volumes at the impact (both positive and negative) European expansion had upon the world in a larger sense. He also states that he has attempted to expand his coverage of women in history, though this is still in a somewhat imperfect state given the brevity of the text and the focus on mostly political and intellectual history. See the sections on Rome for an example of this, where scholarship has revealed more about women and gender in Roman society, but the text here has only limited coverage of this kind of information.

Reviewed by Mark Janzen, Assistant Professor of History, Louisiana College on 4/25/20

The chapters covered in this first volume are well-organized and the major topics are addressed but sometimes without sufficient space (more in "Consistency" section). I was especially happy to the ancient world given several chapters instead of... read more

Since the book is apparently marketed in three parts, I think it's important to provide an index for each part. Certain institutions or programs may use only volume 1, for example, and there is no index for it.

Most sections I found to be accurate but there were a few errors, some more troubling than others. Jews, Christians, and Muslims do not worship the same god as the Introduction claims. There are substantial differences -- Trinitarian God vs. Allah is One, Deity of Christ, etc. -- to the extent that devout believers of each faith would bristle at the notion that they worship the same god. If the intent was to inform students that the three 3 largest monotheistic faiths have much in common due to their Abrahamic heritage, then that needs to be said. Claiming they all worship the same god is a gross simplification and requires far too much "cleaning up" from the professor to my mind. Either this needs to be removed or given a fuller treatment with far more nuance. The explanation regarding the Trinity is also a bit muddy and it felt like the author was not quite sure how to explain it. I also find using terms like "party line" to discuss a religious dogma to be in poor state and this risks giving students an overly politicized view of religion. Of course, religion and politics mixed often in that time period, but again I thought nuance was lacking here. Overall the sections on religion need the most work.

Another area that needs more nuance is the so-called "Dark Ages" and the long since worn out characterization of the Germanic tribes are barbarians. The author appears to be aware of this by continually putting it "barbarians" in quotes and then explaining it in one paragraph. The term, however, should be replaced by the actual names of the tribes for their distinctions to be noted. They were not one homogenous group. There's no reason to perpetuate the Roman stereotype of them. Note it and move on to addressing them by name.

A colleague of mine has read it as well and made some additional observations I'd like to highlight. The sections involving Latin terms also need to be cleaned up a bit. "Coloni" are not slaves but colonists. Most Coloni were "veterani" or their descendants who were settled in conquered provinces to secure Roman power. They kept the peace and were given land as incentive for military service. They were by definition free Roman citizens, in contrast to the rustici or nativi who were non-citizens and often suffered under early forms of serfdom.

A few topics deserve more treatment, in particular the time between the Arab Conquest and the Crusades. More should be said of the Carolingians, the Holy Roman Empire, etc.

I think it's relevant and appears like it would be easy to update. I don't know if the author is a Wikipedia writer but at times it reads very similar to Wiki entries and makes use of Wiki Commons media/images. I don't not say this as a criticism necessarily. If anything, such a relationship makes updating even more streamlined.

I will include these next remarks here because of the relationship to Wikipedia. I considered placing them in the first section as well. I would greatly appreciate a section "For Further Reading" so that the reliance on Wiki would be mitigated a bit. Considering that nearly every professor I know tells his/her students to not rely too much on Wiki, it's important that the book provide additional sources.

See some of my comments above, but overall I think it is well-written for an early Undergraduate textbook. I would like a bit more precision and nuance on certain topics (some addressed above) but the overall prose is lucid and accessible. I think this is written in a more readable prose for Freshman than the vast majority of textbooks.

Terminology is fine so far as I could tell. I do think the framework needs to tweaked some (see comments above about the time periods between the Arabic Conquest and the Crusades). I think more should also be said of a few ancient events like Late Bronze Age Collapse and the Peloponnesian War. That said, I greatly appreciated the space devoted to the ANE, Greece, and Rome.

No issues here. The headings are intuitive and provide a generally fair amount of reading for each section. Easily digestible for undergrads.

They are logical and clear other than the last chapter or two on Islam and the Early Middle Ages which feels rushed (see comments above)

Layout, pixelation, etc. are all well done.

No major issues.

It's inclusive. A bit more on women/gender throughout would be helpful. The section on women in Egypt was great to see but so short. Much more could said there and in other regions and times. See also my previous comments on religion.

My other major concern is that there is a lack of primary source citations. Many expensive texts include text-boxes or something similar to address this. Others include an entirely separate book. Considering cost, the latter is a bad option, of course. Good instructors will no doubt supplement this book with primary sources, but I would like to see more sources cited in the text to demonstrate how vibrant, exciting, and relevant history is. For example, when I discuss women in Egypt, I discuss letters from the worker's village at Deir el-Medina from two women to each other. One essentially states she has nothing to wear for the social function that week, so she wants to borrow something from the letter recipient. My students get a good laugh at that! More significantly, that conversation allows us to discuss literacy rates and gender. Did these women know how to write or have access to scribes somehow if not? Both options have interesting implications for their treatment in Egyptian society. I say all this as one example how vital including primary sources is to make history come alive. The book is well-written but needs more of this for history to come alive, which I find is often an uphill battle in Civ classes, as many students come into the class after a poor experience with history class in high school (IE, boring).

Finally, I'd like to note that there is a good chance my department adopts this book. It does a nice job overall. My comments above are made in hopes of improving it further.

Reviewed by Michael Hofstetter, Professor of History, Southwest Minnesota State University on 6/24/19

The text covers the main ideas and areas of the subject well. However, it lacks an index, glossary, and bibliography. The addition of a bibliography (or at least some suggested readings connected with each chapter) would be most helpful for... read more

The text is generally accurate. However, some sections are stronger than others. The chapters on the Roman republic and empire are particularly strong and even handed. The chapter on Islam, however, glosses over key events (such as the murder of Uthman and the events at Karbala) which were crucial in the creation of the division between Sunnism and Shiism. There are also some minor factual oversights which could use editing - Abbasid era scholars did pioneering work in optics and refraction but did not develop telescopes; the letter which Pope Gregory sent to missionaries in Anglo-Saxon England did not go to Bede but to Augustine of Canterbury; Solon was by all accounts an archon and not (unlike Draco before him or Peisistratus afterwards) a tyrant.

Of greater concern is that, on occasion, the author makes unnecessary polemical statements. The most egregious of these is his repeated assertion that many Western Civilization textbooks begin with Greece. Most widely used textbooks, however, begin with Mesopotamia and Egypt just as this one does, so this is misguided. This otherwise very useful text is also occasionally marred by diction which is overly informal. A textbook such as this needs to both present material in an engaging fashion (which this does) and to offer students a strong example of scholarly prose.

The book incorporates recent scholarship though its citation of it is uneven. Here again a bibliography of some sort would be most helpful.

The text explains most technical terms very clearly and makes appropriate use of etymologies in its explanations.

As noted above the use of terminology is consistent.

The text is divided into clearly defined chapters which would facilitate classroom use.

Most of the book is well organized. It could use a bit of tightening up in a few areas, though. For example, it discusses the Mycenean Civilization in two different sections when it would be clearer to keep it all together.

The interface works well. It is also easy to download the text in a PDF format.

The text is grammatically correct though the diction is at times too informal.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

The text is inclusive.

This textbook clearly is the product of great effort and is generally well-organized and presented. As mentioned above, it could benefit from some minor editing for accuracy, diction and, on occasion, organizational clarity and would be improved by the inclusion of a bibliography or suggested reading list as well as an index. It is a strong attempt to offer a survey of a broad period and would be of use particularly in the community college environment.

Introduction
Chapter 1: The Origins of Civilization
Chapter 2: Egypt
Chapter 3: The Bronze Age and the Iron Age
Chapter 4: The Archaic Age of Greece
Chapter 5: Persia and the Greek Wars
Chapter 6: The Classical Age of Greece
Chapter 7: The Hellenistic Age
Chapter 8: The Roman Republic
Chapter 9: The Roman Empire
Chapter 10: The Late Empire and Christianity
Chapter 11: Byzantium
Chapter 12: Islam and the Caliphates
Chapter 13: Early Medieval Europe

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Western Civilization: A Concise History is an Open Educational Resource textbook covering the history of Western Civilization from approximately 8000 BCE to the recent past.

The textbook is divided into three volumes. The core narrative of the textbook is a political history of the greater Mediterranean region in the ancient period in Volume 1, Europe and European empires in the medieval and early modern periods in Volume 2, and both European and world history in the modern period in Volume 3. Elements of intellectual, cultural, social, and religious history are present throughout, but the main focus of the text is politics over time.

About the Contributors

Dr. Christopher Brooks , Portland Community College

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The East and the West

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First Online: 15 October 2020

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Hye K. Pae 10

Part of the book series: Literacy Studies ((LITS,volume 21))

This chapter reviews the cultural aspects of the East and the West. A wide range of differences between the East and the West is discussed in terms of the extrinsic and intrinsic differences. The extrinsic differences comprise architecture, the mode of clothing, everyday practices, and language and script, while the intrinsic differences consist of culture and value systems, attention and perception (holistic vs. analytic), problem solving (relation vs. categorization), and rhetorical structure (linear vs. roundabout). The locus of these differences is identified with respect to philosophical foundations and the characteristics of Eastern and Western cultures. The prevalent interpretations of the differences between the East and the West center on Diamond’s ( 1999 ) guns, germs, and steel, Nisbett’s ( 2003 ) geography of thought, and Logan’s ( 2004 ) alphabet effects. However, these interpretations cannot explain differences in ideologies, religious practices, and societal values among Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans. Therefore, script relativity becomes a new interpretation of the engine behind the differences among the three East-Asian nations and between the East and the West.

“More than a billion people in the world today claim intellectual inheritance from ancient Greece. More than two billion are the heirs of ancient Chinese traditions of thought. The philosophies and achievements of the Greeks and Chinese of 2,500 years ago were remarkably different, as were the social structures and conceptions of themselves. And the intellectual aspects of each society make sense in light of their social characteristics.” Richard E. Nisbett ( 2003 , p. 1)

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extrinsic differences
intrinsic differences
philosophical underpinnings
new interpretation

The origin of and differences between Eastern and Western cultures have been extensively discussed in such disciplines as anthropology, philosophy, archeology, psychology, and applied linguistics. Nisbett ( 2003 ) asserts, as shown in the epigraph above, that Westerners find their intellectual heritage from the Greek, while Easterners give credit to Chinese tradition. This chapter does not aim to be a comprehensive survey of the characteristics of the East and the West. Although there are multiple ways to understand the two hemispheres of the globe, my discussion in this chapter is based on empirical findings in social psychology regarding Eastern and Western cultures. First, cultural differences between the East and the West are illustrated in light of extrinsic manifestations and intrinsic indications. Differences in architectural structures, clothing, everyday practice, and language and script are reviewed as extrinsic exhibitions. Culture and value systems, attention and perception, problem solving strategies, and rhetorical structures are discussed under intrinsic indications. As a way to explain the underlying workings for the overt and covert differences, the major philosophical underpinnings in the East (Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism) and the west (Aristotle) are discussed, along with Diamond’s ( 1999 ) view of human history and civilization, Nisbett’s ( 2003 ) analysis of geographical and social psychology, and Logan’s ( 2004 ) claim on the alphabet effect. Ultimately, I look at the differences between the East and the West through the lens of script relativity , which mainly rests on findings by other scientists who have studied the differences between the East and the West from the perspectives of social psychology, cognitive psychology, applied linguistics, and communication.

Since empirical findings reviewed in this chapter primarily come from adult studies, criticisms may arise for the skewed pool toward adult participants in research. However, relying on adults rather than children for measuring particular constructs makes more sense because adults show more stabilized characteristics than children’s still developing (relatively) transient traits. The dichotomy of the East and the West can also invite criticisms because cultures and human characteristics are not monolithic. However, a generalization or grouping can be the first step toward an understanding of a given phenomenon. Although the use of dichotomous concepts can simplify the phenomenon, the binary distinction can also provide insights into group differences. Taking more variables, such as age, gender, educational systems, religion, and ethnicity, into account would be the next step to investigate the intricacies of the given phenomenon. As operationalized definitions are provided in Chapter 1 , the term Asians used in this chapter refers to peoples from the three East-Asian countries of China, Japan, and Korea. Likewise, the word Westerners refers to European Americans, as the modern United States is a European-molded society (Diamond, 1999 ).

1 Differences between the East and the West

It is difficult to explain differences between the East and the West within a single chapter. The differences can be discussed largely by two dimensions, however: extrinsic and intrinsic dimensions. The first is a phenomenon that is overtly seen and tangible, while the other is a covert and hidden engine that drives us to live our lives in our own ways. The Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans share a common culture in general, but their languages and scripts are different from one another. This point of the common culture yet different languages and scripts has rarely been addressed collectively, although culture and language/script have been treated as separate constructs or approaches to the understanding of the East Asian people and traditions.

1.1 Extrinsic Differences

1.1.1 architecture.

Architecture is one example of an overt and extrinsic cultural product that reveals esoteric qualities manifested differently in the East and the West. Architecture is an art form of synthesis that communally reflects our values, aesthetics, culture, and surroundings. The architecture of modern days has become homogeneous in the East and the West such that the city landscapes of Beijing, Tokyo, Seoul, New York, and London are pretty much similar to one another. However, ancient architectural structures were different in the two hemispheres of the globe. Architecture not only reveals the philosophical and aesthetic standards of the builder, but also displays materials that were available at the time of construction.

Every society has the religious place in the form of the church, the mosque, or the temple (or shrine) at which people are gregarious for spiritual maturity. The places are architecturally elaborate and intricate monuments of spiritual sanctuaries. The ecclesiastical architecture is the prototype of architecture in each society, given that the religious architecture is imbued with arts, beliefs, and values of the particular culture and society. Although architectural styles have changed in response to changing beliefs, practices, and traditions, there are salient differences in the ecclesiastical architecture between the East and the West. Old Asian temples are generally built with wood, and are round and circular and not overly protuberant from the surroundings. They are rather harmonized with Nature and the natural scenery and have symmetry-driven structures with variations. However, Western churches are in general rectangular and have sharp pinnacles with geometric shapes. These differences between the East and the West can be an expression of subliminal workings of social member’s mind.

1.1.2 Clothing

Just like language and architecture, clothing is a human-specific practice. Evidence suggests that humans began wearing clothes that were made up of animal skins or other natural resources somewhere from 100,000 to 500,000 years ago. Primitive bone needles are dated back to 61,000 years ago and were discovered in Sibudu Cave in South Africa (Backwell, dErrico, & Wadley, 2008 ). The earliest silk production from the cocoon of domesticated silkworms was made in China in sometime between 5000 and 3000 B.C. Silk Road was the route for exchange of luxury textiles between the East and the West, which facilitated the development of the great civilizations of China and the West. Lemire and Riello ( 2008 ) make note of a long interaction between Asia and Europe in the fashion system. The European use of silk and printed cotton textiles from Asia took place in the early establishment of modern fashion. The Europeanization of Asian textiles reflects intellectual, commercial, and aesthetic relationships between Europe and Asia (Lemire & Riello, 2008 ). Despite the long history of interaction between the East and the West, the tradition of clothing is still different across cultures.

Most human societies have their own forms of clothing that adapt to geographical and meteorological conditions. Different cultures use clothing in different ways depending on climate, ecosystem, religion, and value systems. The trajectory of changes over time also varies across cultures due to the difference in their values. Clothing also reflects a society’s beliefs and customs, and expresses the member’s sense of beauty and aesthetic qualities. In some cultures, clothing is used for specific purposes, such as the expressions of prestige and decorations of magic or cult. For example, emperors used excessively decorated garments with golden crowns. Top officials in ancient dynasties had different animal prints embroidered on their gowns to demonstrate their power and rankings within the system. Shamans wore clothes of extraordinary colors and patterns with brightly decorated accessories or beaded fringes. Archeological findings and arts illustrate different clothing customs across cultures and societies, especially between the East and the West.

Beyond these differences between the East and the West at the global level, idiosyncrasies are found among people from China, Japan, and Korea at the regional level. Although the physical appearance of East Asians is similar to one another, I can quickly discriminate Koreans from Chinese and Japanese people more by the way they dress than by facial features or other physical characteristics. The way we dress is likely to underpin the mode of expressions of personal and group values.

1.1.3 Everyday Practice

Social psychologists have shown that Eastern culture is group-oriented, while Western culture is individual-centered (Hofstede, 1980 ; Hofstede, Bond & Minkov, 2010 ; Nisbett, 2003 ; see Intrinsic Differences below for more detail on collectivism versus individualism). This idea is demonstrated in language use as well as other social and cultural practices. The use of the first-person singular pronouns “me” and “my” is generally discouraged in Asian culture. For example, the Koreans emphasize the plural concept and discourage the first-person singular use. The Koreans use the phrase “ our mother” or “ our brother” instead of “my mother” or “my brother” (when the singular form is used in Korea, it is understandable but sounds awkward). An extreme example for the reluctance of the first person singularity is found in the phrase “ our lover” or “ our sweet heart” to refer to “my lover” or “my sweet heart.” This is an example of how language expresses the speaker’s ideology and value systems of a culture, especially the group-oriented mindsets of the Koreans (see Culture and Value Systems below for more detail).

Another example of group orientation found in everyday practice in China, Japan, and Korea is the order of information arrangement for the sender and the receiver that we place on the envelope for mail. The American way is to write the receiver’s and sender’s names first and then gradually move on to a larger unit ending with the state name or the country name. The East-Asian way is completely opposite to this practice. Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans write the largest unit first (i.e., the country or city names) and then gradually narrow it down to the sender or the receiver name on the envelope for mail. This example shows how our value systems are expressed in our everyday activities.

1.1.4 Language and Script

Each language has its own unique characteristics. Given that it has been time-tested and endured for a long period of time, language is inextricably connected to the speaker’s mind and cognition (Lenneberg, 1967 ; Levinson, 2003 ). A debate over the causal path of effects from language to thought or from thought to language would be a chicken-egg debate at the surface level, but what is obvious is its indispensable link between the language we speak and our mind. Benjamin Lee Whorf already conceptualized this in the early 1940s. As discussed in Chapter 3 , the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (i.e., language shapes thought) was dismissed prematurely and inadequately. Recent evidence from the acquisition of a second or additional language has been added to the reinvigoration of the Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis. Another layer is the writing system or script we use in our everyday lives. Reading has become an integral part of our lives in the twenty-first century with the immense use of hypermedia and social media. Not a single day does pass by without reading traditional text or digital text. The habitual and long-term use of written text is likely to affect the undercurrents of our cognition and the way we process information. Since language and script are continuously discussed throughout this book, no further elaboration on language and script is made in this section.

1.2 Intrinsic Differences

1.2.1 culture and value systems.

One’s identity is largely a function of one’s role and membership in a group or within a culture. Culture refers to shared values among a group of people. Depending on the value system a group of people shares, cultural orientation is broken down into collectivism and individualism. A collectivistic society is characterized on group cohesion, interdependence, moderation, self-control, and group identity over the self. Collectivistic people work together to create group harmony and consensus, and seek benefits for the whole group over the individual. Viewing the group as a super-organism, collectivists emphasize group cohesiveness and harmony, advocate common values, and demonstrate in-group orientation. In contrast, members of an individualistic society are oriented around the values of self-determination, self-expression, freedom, and independence (Hofstede, 1980 ).

According to Hofstede ( 1980 ), the construct of collectivism or individualism is neither right or wrong nor opposite, but it is considered two distinct values. Not every society or culture is at one end or the other end of the continuum of social values, but the majority of social members tend to lean toward one over the other in many sectors of their lives. Dominant values in each society shape individuals’ intricate software for the development of social values, communication styles, and shared consciousness. Although each nation’s value systems can be traced back to its early history, a multitude of recurring factors contribute to the foundation of the culture.

A couple of proverbs poignantly deliver the contrast between collectivistic and individualistic norms. The Asian proverbs “The nail that stands out gets pounded down” and “Pointy stone meets chisel” are sharply juxtaposed with the American adage “The squeaky wheel gets the grease.” This contrast further signifies the difference between the East and the West. Standing out among group members or seeking personal attention and benefits is not encouraged in Asia in general because the virtues of modesty and humility supersede the individual benefit. However, speaking up and being heard are encouraged in America.

Hofstede ( 1980 ) conducted a seminal cross-cultural study making comparisons along the continuum of collectivism and individualism with each cultural dimension representing an opposite pole. The dichotomy of collectivism and individualism was challenged by other theorists because the nature of culture is more complex than the binary unidimensional aspect. However, Hofstede’s ( 1980 ) conceptualization is still influential and has a useful point in a sense that it is one way to explain the phenomenon. According to him, individuals who endorse a high degree of collectivism prioritize communal goals over individual goals. Its contrasting tendency is found in individualists.

The criticism that collectivism-individualism is unidimensional has been addressed in a more recent study by Hofstede and colleagues. Hofstede, Bond, and Minkov ( 2010 ) have conducted one of the most comprehensive cross-cultural studies of 76 countries and scored each country on a scale of 1 to 120 (1 representing the lowest and 120 representing the highest) for six dimensions using factor analysis. According to Hofstede ( 1980 ), culture is the programming of the mind that is shared by a distinct group of people. Six dimensions of culture are covered in the model of national culture as follows: (1) power distance, (2) individualism versus collectivism, (3) masculinity versus femininity, (4) uncertainty avoidance, (5) long-term pragmatic orientation versus short-term normative orientation, and (6) indulgence versus restraint.

The dimension of power distance concerns how a society handles inequity among people. It refers to the extent to which less powerful members of the society accept the unequal distribution of power within a culture and tolerate a hierarchical order and the unequal distribution of power. Individualists are likely to be self-sufficient and self-reliant. They tend to have a low power distance rather than the unequal distribution of power. They prioritize individual goals over communal goals. Collectivistic individuals tend to show the opposite.

The second scale of individualism versus collectivism refers to the extent to which loosely-knit or close-knit social frameworks are accepted by social members. The self-image tends to be expressed in the use of the pronoun “I” or “we.” Individualists prefer to use the singular pronoun “I”, while collectivists are likely to use the plural form “we.” Regarding the third dimension, masculinity prefers competition, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success, while femininity favors cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak, and consensus. The fourth dimension of uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which social members bear uncertainty and ambiguity to cope with the future. It is usually manifested by rigid or relaxed codes of belief, behavior, and attitude. The existential goals of long-term or short-term orientation , which is the fifth dimension, involve interpreting the past to deal with the challenges of the present and the future. The long-term orientation involves fostering virtues related to effort, persistence, and frugality, and tends to have futuristic mentality by focusing on relational order, interrelatedness, perseverance, and thrift. It also maintains time-honored traditions and norms with a more conventional mentality emphasizing face-saving and personal stability. The short-term orientation values virtues related to instant gratification, personal steadfastness and stability, and the past and present. The last dimension, indulgence versus restraint , refers to the degree to which members have control over desires and impulses in pursuit of happiness. The former tends to allow for free gratification, while the latter suppresses or regulates impulses or needs gratification using stringent social norms.

Figure 6.1 . shows a comparison of the scale scores of the three East-Asian people and Americans by dimension. Consistent with Hofstede’s ( 1980 ) original hypothesis, Chinese people show the highest level of power distance, while Americans show the lowest. High power distance tends to be observed in collectivistic cultures. The higher scale of the Chinese than those of the Japanese and South Koreans may have to do with the difference in their political climates. Collectivistic people are less likely to challenge authority or people in power in order to protect group wellbeing and established order. Individualistic people are inclined to challenge authority, by calling for the legitimate use of power and a reduction of power differences between or among social classes. As shown in Figure 6.1 ., differences are found among the four groups of people across Hofstede’s dimensions. Notable differences between Easterners and Americans are observed in the dimensions of Individualism, Indulgence, and Long-Term Orientation. Americans show higher scores on Individualism and Indulgence, but lower scores on the Long-Term Orientation. Within the three Asian groups, there are variations in Individualism, Masculinity, and Uncertainty Avoidance. This demonstrates that the three cultural groups are not monolithic.

Cultural Scales among Chinese, Japanese, Koreans, and Americans.

Based on Hofstede’s ( 1980 ) and Hofsted et al.’s ( 2010 ) studies, Table 6.1 . summarizes the characteristics of collectivistic and individualistic cultures. The contrastive traits can be directly and indirectly observed among ethnic groups within the U.S. and among people from different continents around the globe. Under the framework of cultural differences between the East and the West, empirical studies in relation to attention and perception, problem-solving strategies, and rhetorical structures are reviewed below.

1.2.2 Attention and Perception: Holistic versus Analytic

Differences in attentional and perceptual patterns between Easterners and Westerners have been investigated in social psychology. Predominant findings converge on robust differences in cultural members’ attention to the foreground and the background of the scene for Westerners and Easterners, respectively. Easterners tend to attend to context-dependent information in a holistic way, while Westerners are likely to pay attention to context-independent information in an analytic fashion (Masuda & Nisbett, 2001 ; Miyamoto, Nisbett, & Masuda, 2006 ; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001 ). Specifically, Masuda and Nisbett ( 2001 ) showed Japanese and American students short video clips of underwater scenes including fish, small animals, water plants, and small rocks, and asked them to describe what appeared in the video clips. American students primarily described the characteristics and motions of the fish (i.e., the focal object) in the foreground (e.g., large, rapidly moving, bright colored). In contrast, Japanese students paid more attention to the context and relationships between the fish and the context (e.g., background objects, location of the fish in relation to other objects). East-Asians’ tendency to focus more on the context is also found in conceptual tasks. Chinese and other East Asians are more likely to attribute individuals’ behaviors to situational conditions, while Americans tend to attribute behaviors to individuals’ dispositional characteristics rather than uncontrollable situational factors (Choi, Nisbett, & Norenzayan, 1999 ). This line of findings has been consistent with the evidence from neuroscientific research (see Goto, Ando, Huang, Yee, & Lewis, 2010 ; Masuda, Russell, Chen, Hioki, & Caplan, 2014 ) and eye movement data (Ueda & Komiya, 2012 ).

Using the change-blindness paradigm (i.e., people are at times blind to changes happening in the environment), Masuda and Nisbett ( 2006 ) investigated how perception and cognition are qualitatively different between East Asians and Westerners using still photos and animated vignettes with changes in the focal object and the context. Results showed that American participants were more sensitive to changes in the focal objects than in the periphery or context, while East Asians were sensitive to contextual changes by attending to the entire field and relations among objects within the field. Americans were less likely to detect changes made in the background than in the foreground, on average, and were less sensitive to situational cues or constraints on a speaker’s behavior than East Asians. Asians tended to show the opposite. These results suggest that cultural variations exist as a function of basic perceptual processes.

As an extension of Masuda and Nisbett’s ( 2006 ) study, Miyamoto, Nisbett, and Masuda ( 2006 ) conducted a study that examined the role of the physical environment in perception using still pictures of scenes from small, medium, and large cities in Japan and the U.S. Both objective and subjective analyses of the pictures showed that Japanese settings have more ambiguous contours of buildings and more complexity in settings than American counterparts. Consistent with previous findings, Japanese students were more attentive to the context than were European Americans (Study 1). When the pictures of the three cities were presented as primes, the group difference disappeared. In other words, both Japanese and American students who were primed with Japanese settings paid more attention to contextual features than those who were primed with American scenes. The researchers interpreted the results as the physical environmental effects on perceptual patterns. The implication of this result is important in that Miyamoto et al. ( 2006 ) have identified the physical setting as a (causal) factor that affects (or reinforces) the patterns of perception. More studies are needed to corroborate the findings of this study. If Miyamoto et al.’s claim is correct, it is possible that reading, in which we pay more conscious attention and effort in a daily activity, would exert a greater effect than scenes due to more cognizant attention we pay in reading than in looking at scenes. We hardly pay mindful attention to buildings or physical environments unless we have specific intention to do so.

Easterners’ collective and interdependent tendency is consistent with their worldview and beliefs that things are not monolithic. Westerners’ individualistic and independent traits accord not only with their focus on particular objects in isolation from the context, but also with their belief that they can control the object’s behavior because all events are governed by rules (Nisbett, 2003 ). The force or drive that makes differences between the East and the West is a self-reinforcing homeostatic system that is related to the fundamental nature of the mind (Nisbett, 2003 ). According to Nisbett ( 2003 ), the effect is a domino-like sequence as in “the social practices promote the worldviews; the world views dictate the appropriate thought processes; and the thought processes both justify the worldviews and support the social practices” (p. xx).

In a similar vein, my doctoral students and I are conducting a cross-cultural study of argument structures and descriptive tendencies using a picture book (Sun, Luo, & Pae, 2020 ). A picture book, Frog, Where Are You? Footnote 1 , was shown to adult native speakers of Chinese, Korean, and English to examine how these language groups conceptualize the story based on a series of pictures. One of assumptions is that the two Asian groups would use more hedges, such as sort of , a little , kind of , maybe , and seem , than does the American counterpart. Hedge words in the forms of adjectives, adverbs, or clauses are a tool used to soften the degree of confidence, passion, or tension associated with an expression or to express politeness. They can be viewed as a form of euphemism or a tool of epistemic modality. Asian students seem to use more hedge words in order to mitigate assertiveness in a message, which accords with the predominant Asians’ tendencies mentioned earlier. This is consistent with the finding that Japanese speakers show “greater reliance on what is arguably as general a noun as could be chosen” with the overuse of thing instead of specifying what it is (Schanding & Pae, 2018 ), as shown in an argumentative essay written by a native Japanese speaker: “The majority of Japanese may think that it is not [a] good thing that public matter assumes religious image and [that] also Japan becomes a religious nation” (bold in original, p. 72).

Consistent with Masuda and Nisbett’s ( 2006 ) study, the results of our study also show that Asian students are more likely to describe the surroundings of the scene than the main characters’ activities or attributes. For example, in the description of a scene depicting a boy (main character) and a dog looking at an empty jar in the bedroom, a Korean participant stated the following: “It’s dark outside because there’s a moon and the window is a little open. There’s one bed with the lights on. Beside the kid, there’s a piece of clothes.” This participant’s account is filled with background descriptions rather than the main character’s unexpected finding that his pet frog has run away (Sun et al., 2020 ).

A typological difference is also found. The Chinese and Korean languages are topic-prominent languages, whereas English is a subject-prominent language. Asian students tend not to produce an extraposed subject clause (i.e., a subject clause that is moved to the end of the sentence) by using the nonreferential subject “it.” For example, the sentence “Finding the frog was difficult” tends to be produced, as opposed to a sentence like “It was difficult to find the frog,” which is more likely to be produced by a native speaker of English as a standard expression (Sun et al., 2020 ).

In most cases, the subject in Japanese and Korean is not mentioned in the sentence when the subject is obvious within the context. For example, the sentence “I love you” can be understood by the speaker and the listener with the verb only (“love”) without the subject and the object in Korean. The subject omission is possible in Korean and Japanese because who does what to whom is decipherable without mentioning within a particular context. This is different from English, which has the more rigid sentence structure in that the subject is mandatory except for imperative sentences. The omission of the subject (and object at times) shows Asians’ focus on the situation rather than the actor or agent of the verb action. This is consistent with findings of previous studies showing Asians’ attention being placed more on contexts than main characters (Masuda & Nisbett, 2006 ).

1.2.3 Problem Solving: Relation versus Categorization

Reasoning and problem solving styles are found to be different across cultures as well. Research shows that East Asians prefer identifying relationships in information processing, while Westerners prefer categorizing objects (Nisbett & Miyamoto, 2005 ; Chua, Boland, & Nisbett, 2005 ; Ji, Zhang & Nisbett, 2004 ). The tendency of East Asians to focus on relationships between objects and events as well as contexts is consistent with previous findings. European Americans tend to categorize objects based on their properties and tend to decontextualize objects from their contexts in an orderly way (Chua, Boland, & Nisbett, 2005 ; Ji, Peng, & Nisbett, 2000 ; Nisbett, 2003 ; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001 ).

Ji, et al. ( 2004 ) conducted two mini-studies of categorization. In Study 1, they included four groups of participants including speakers of (1) Chinese residing in Mainland China, (2) Mainland and Taiwan Chinese residing in the U.S., (3) Hong Kong and Singapore Chinese in the U.S., and (4) European Americans. The researchers presented to participants a set of three words (e.g., monkey , panda , and banana ; postman , uniform , and policeman ) and asked them to find which two of the three words were most closely related to each other. Results showed that Chinese bilinguals tended to organize objects in a more relational way (i.e., monkeys eat bananas) than in a categorical way (i.e., monkeys and pandas are both animals) regardless of the language in which they were tested (i.e., Chinese or English). When Chinese-English bilinguals were compared by locality, Chinese students residing in the mainland and Taiwan where Chinese was the societal language were more likely to focus on relations when being tested in Chinese than in English. However, Chinese students from Hong Kong and Singapore where both Chinese and English were spoken as the societal languages tended to be equally relational when they were tested in Chinese and English. In Study 2, they also used a categorization task, but it was slightly different from that of Study 1, such that either relational or categorical grouping was possible within a set of three words (e.g., carrot , rabbit , and eggplant; teacher , doctor , and homework ) with the two groups of participants: Chinese in Mainland China and Hong Kong Chinese in Hong Kong. Consistent with the findings of Study 1, the results showed that Chinese participants from Mainland China showed a stronger tendency for recognizing or identifying relationships in Chinese than in English. In contrast, Hong Kong Chinese participants showed a preference for strong relationships in both Chinese and English with no language effect.

Of interest in the results of Ji et al.’s ( 2004 ) study is a significant language effect found in Chinese students from Mainland China and Taiwan. The two groups of Chinese students seem to differentiate categorizations depending on the language they use at hand. They categorized the word stimuli in a more relational way when they were tested in Chinese than when tested in English. The same results were found regardless of the localities of the U.S. or China. However, the language effect disappeared in the bilingual groups from Hong Kong and Singapore. The researchers interpreted the age of English acquisition and the living environment as the sources of the difference found in the Chinese participants between the two Chinese-spoken localities (Mainland and Taiwan), which showed a language effect, and the dual-language-spoken localities (Hong Kong and Singapore where both Chinese and English are spoken), which showed no language effect.

Westerners’ tendency to pay attention to categorization as a way of problem-solving strategies leads to the assumption that they use rules and principles or follow linear logic to understand the properties of objects and behaviors of animals and humans. Easterners focus on relationships and functions within the context. Although it may be overgeneralization to conclude that Westerners tend to attend to categories and that Easterners are more likely to focus on relationships within the context, this comparison gives rise to important implications for understanding the nature of thought, thought processes, and cognitive tools that each cultural group uses to make sense of the world. Overall, these research findings furthermore offer a global understanding of the sense of self, the mind’s workings, and belief systems between Westerners and Easterners.

1.2.4 Rhetorical Structures : Linear vs. Roundabout

Kaplan ( 1983 ) observes that “speakers of different languages use different devices to present information, to establish the relationships among ideas, to show centrality of one idea as opposed to another, to select the most effective means of representation” (pp. 140–141). This observation is summarized in the notion of contrastive rhetoric (a.k.a., intercultural rhetoric), indicating that, when an individual expresses his/her ideas in a second language (L2), the individual’s first language and culture have an impact on L2 writing in terms of discourse structures and the organization of writing. Contrastive rhetoric has become a research interest in cultural thought patterns and the ways in which an individual’s rhetorical structures influence argument or rhetorical patterns in L2. Studies of contrastive rhetoric examine similarities and differences in writing across cultures. Contrastive rhetoric has been criticized for its theoretical foundation and methodological practice as well as overgeneralization. Kubota and Lehner ( 2004 ) assert that “…contrastive rhetoric has tended to construct static, homogeneous, and apolitical images of the rhetorical patterns of various written languages” (p. 9).

With the publication of Contrastive Rhetoric: Cross-Cultural Aspects of Second-Language Writing (Connor, 1996 ), contrastive rhetoric has been reinvigorated in L2 writing. Regardless of its criticism for oversimplification and skewed use of adult subjects, Kaplan ( 1966 ) had a valid point in cross-cultural differences of rhetorical or narrative structures. According to him, English speakers (including Germanic languages, such as German, Dutch, Norwegian, and Danish) tend to communicate in a direct and linear way without much digression. In contrast, Asian people are likely to beat around the bush to avoid a direct statement and to take various perspectives into consideration. The notion of contrastive rhetoric is consistent with empirical findings that have been reviewed in this chapter.

Hall ( 1989 ) also noted that collectivists tend to subscribe to a high-context communication style relying on relationship dimensions. Reading between the lines is at times necessary for Asians because beating around the bush is not uncommon. Being direct or getting right to the point can be regarded as disrespectfulness or being rude. In contrast, individualistic individuals are likely to have a low-context communication style, showing a tendency of precise, direct, and specific modes of communication. The ability to articulate thoughts and ideas eloquently is encouraged in individualistic cultures. The explicit mode of communication among individualists is used focusing on content in order to avoid misunderstandings and confusions between the speaker and the listener.

To summarize, the differences between the Easterners and Westerners have been found in behavioral research in social psychology, applied linguistics, and communication. Irrespective of research methods, tasks employed, participant groups, and the modes of inquiry, fairly consistent findings have been accumulated to indicate robust differences existing between Easterners and Westerners. In the following section, I attempt to tease apart reasons behind the difference from several perspectives.

2 What Makes the Differences between the East and the West?

Observational and empirical evidence has shown that distinct differences exist between the East and the West in cultural milieus, group members’ attention and perception, problem-solving strategies, and rhetorical structures. If Eastern and Western cultures are truly different from each other and if Easterners and Westerners think in a truly different way, what makes the differences? What are the underlying sources of the variations? Notwithstanding several ways to answer these questions, the discussion in the rest of this chapter primarily relies on philosophical considerations, Diamond’s ( 1999 ) interpretation of the world civilization, Nisbett’s ( 2003 ) view of the geographical difference between the two hemispheres of the globe, and Logan’s ( 2004 ) alphabet effects.

2.1 Philosophical Underpinnings

The word philosophy derives from the Greek word philosophia (φιλοσοφία; philein , φιλεῖν <to love> and sophia , σοφία <wisdom>), meaning the love of wisdom . Since wisdom is the ability to think and act appropriately based on accumulated knowledge, experience, insight, and common sense, the way in which the love of wisdom is manifested within a group of people would become an underpinning of a particular culture. The way to seek wisdom was dissimilar between the East and the West in antiquity.

2.1.1 Aristotle in the West

Western philosophical thinking centers around the Greek philosophies of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, although a pre-Socratic philosopher (Thales of Miletus, 624–546 B.C.) existed. The key figure was Socrates (469?–399 B.C.) who studied under Sophists, but transformed the Greek philosophy into a modern philosophy. He used the so-called Socratic Method by questioning everyone in order to examine people’s views and philosophical problems in logic, and to enlighten them by asking questions in a way that they would get to realize that they knew nothing. He died in 399 B.C. from an execution of drinking a poison hemlock for allegedly corrupting the youth through his philosophical logic and enlightenment.

Plato (429?–347? B.C.) was a disciple of Socrates. He founded the Academy of Athens. Although Socrates did not record his teaching, Plato recorded a number of dialogues that used the Socratic method of inquiry. Plato established a school, which remained for 900 years, and was dedicated to teaching philosophy, mathematics, and theoretical astronomy. Plato’s student was Aristotle (384–322 B.C.). He was considered an astute philosopher and scientist. His accomplishment spanned a wide range of disciplines, including aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, logic, physics, biology, metaphysics, zoology, and politics. He crystalized a rule of logic called syllogism. A syllogism refers to a logical argument that comprises a main premise (general statement), a minor premise (specific statement), and a conclusion that is deduced from the two premises, based on deductive reasoning (e.g., Main premise: All humans are mortal ; Minor premise: Socrates is a human ; Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal ). Aristotle devised syllogisms in order to prevent bad arguments made in the political assembly and the agora. Given that logic is applied by pruning all irrelevant branches in order to leave only the principle or the formal structure intact, syllogisms were a continuation of the Greek tendency to decontextualize arguments as a way to solve contradictions.

Aristotle followed Plato’s footsteps by opening his own school in Athens in 335 B.C. The caliber of Aristotle’s teaching included all-encompassed subjects, consisting of biology, medicine, anatomy, psychology, meteorology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, music, metaphysics, rhetoric, political science, ethics, and literary criticism. His wide range of knowledge and philosophy made him the most influential philosopher and scientist of Western civilization under the influence of Socrates and Plato. Aristotle’s syllogism formulated the history of Western logic and thought by laying a foundation for the major branches of Western philosophy. It is not surprising that geometry was much developed by the Greeks because proofs rely on formal logic and the resolution of contradictions (Nisbett, 2003 ).

2.1.2 Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism in the East

While Aristotle was the foundation of the Greek philosophical tradition, Confucianism (also known as Ruism; {儒教} /rújiào/, <Ru Doctrine>) and Taoism (or Daoism Footnote 2 ; {道} /dào/, literally <the Way>) established the Chinese philosophical groundwork. The founders of Confucianism and Taoism, Confucius (551–479 B.C.) and Laozi (exact year unknown), respectively, lived in the same era, but were different in their philosophical emphases. Confucianism emphasized rigid rituals, social order, and male dominance, while Taoism emphasized harmony with the universe and egalitarian ideology by rejecting rigidity and boundaries. Both philosophies were human-based and offered practical guides to living, but lacked a deity.

The tradition of Confucianism was developed based on the teachings, values, and theology of Confucius. Confucianism emphasizes humanistic values in order to be in harmony with the law of the universe or heaven ({天} /tiān/), including familial and social harmony, filial piety ({孝} /xiào/), benevolence ({仁} /rén/), and ritual norms (simplified character{礼} traditional character{禮} /lǐ/). Confucianism accepts unequal relationships between people with little resistance to maintain the stability of the group or society. It also values the family’s prototype and promotes virtuous behaviors, such as education, tenacity, perseverance, and patience. Confucianism has five key canons, focused on obligation between emperor and subject, between parent and child, between husband and wife, between older brother and younger brother, and between friend and friend. These canons require the child’s respect for the parent, the wife’s obedience to her husband, and a younger sibling’s submission to an older one.

Taoism was different from Confucianism with respect to the goal of philosophy. The two traditions permeated into Chinese culture in different degrees for more than 2,500 years. Confucianism seeks to gain social harmony in a structured society primarily focusing on five relationships mentioned above. In contrast to Confucianism’s adherence to social rules, Taoism pursues harmony and balance in life under the yin and yang forces of Nature. Taoism focuses on the Tao , which is translated into the Way . The Tao denotes the principle of everything that exists, comprising the source, the pattern, and the substance of Nature. Taoism is pantheistic with a philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Way rather than anthropomorphic concepts of God. It focuses on compassion, frugality, and humility as the Three Treasures of basic virtues, as well as naturalness, simplicity, and freedom.

Laozi used the metaphor of flowing water to explain the ideal path to wisdom, as shown in his words “[t]he great Tao flows everywhere, both the left and to the right…it holds nothing back. It fulfills its purpose silently and makes no claims” (Tao Te Ching, no. 34; cited in Shlain, 1998 , p. 187). Laozi emphasized wu-wei (simplified characters {无为}, traditional characters {無爲} /wú wéi/), where wu refers to “nothing” or “there is no…,” and w ei refers to any intentional or deliberated action. A common translation would be “action without intention.” Wu-wei is in accordance with the I Ching or Yi Jing ({易經} /yìjīng/ <The Book of Changes> or <The Classic of Changes>) that proposes that the universe works harmoniously with Nature according to its own way without exerting the person’s will . Breaking the natural rhythm against the cycles of changes or disrupting the natural harmony is discouraged. Harmony with the natural universe is accomplished by nonaction (wu-wei). The opening lines of the Tao Te Ching , a keystone book of Taoism, are as follows:

道可道非常道 ( dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào ) “The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao” 名可名非常名 ( míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng ) “The name that can be named is not the eternal name.”

From the viewpoint of Taoists, anything that is to tell is to assign meaning within the context. There is always something unsaid or undescribed, or that cannot be said nor described. Anything that is to name is to define the characteristic of something or to set the parameter of a given object or concept. However, there is always something in the object or construct that cannot be named or defined accurately and universally. Therefore, Taoists rise above the visible entity by not defining or categorizing Tao or anything.

Early Taoism drew its cosmological ideas from the notion of yin and yang , which was influenced by the oldest classic of Chinese culture, I Ching , which illustrates a philosophical system about how to be in harmony within the cycles of Nature. The two accompanying forces of yin (the feminine, dark, shadow, and passive force) and yang (the masculine, bright, light, and active force) come together to achieve complementarity and to reach completeness. As shown in Figure 6.2 , the yin and yang wholeness contains two connected parts of a white swirl and a black swirl, which make the sum of a perfect circle Footnote 3 . This signifies that everything in the universe has two opposite forces ( yin and yang ). Notably, a black dot is inside the white twirl to signify “yin within yang,” while a white dot is inside the black twirl to signify “ yang within yin .” The whole symbol indicates the interdependent nature of the yin and yang opposites and the concept of interpenetrating opposing forces to complete each other for a harmonious wholeness. Mutual influences and wholeness are more valued than the individual’s self-benefits.

Ying and Yang Symbol

The Asian philosophy of wholeness and wholesome harmony is permeated in social norms as well as medical practices. The old Asian medicine is based on yin - yang and five universal elements, including soil {土}, tree {木}, fire{火}, metal {金}, and water {水}. The soil is the balancing element for the four seasons (connected to bodily organs spleen and stomach ); the tree is the first expanding element Footnote 4 symbolizing life and growth (connected to bodily organs liver and gallbladder ); the fire is the second expanding element symbolizing the origin of energy (connected to bodily organs heart and small intestine ); the metal is the first shrinking element symbolizing justice (connected to bodily organs lung and large intestine ); and the water is the second shrinking element and the source of life energy (connected to bodily organs kidney and bladder ). Herbal medicine focuses on promoting the equilibrium of the body and on preventing physical problems through harmony and wholesome relationships among all body parts rather than on putting interventions on health problems. Hence, Asian medicine shows reluctance to perform surgery, which is different from Western medical practice. Dissection was not introduced to China from the West until the nineteenth century (Nisbett, 2003 ). Acupuncture works in a similar practice with the philosophy of harmony between the body and Nature. The principle of acupuncture is based on the body’s vital energy and the interconnectedness of all body organs as a holistic organism, and, in turn, the human body represents the universe as a miniature. Acupuncturists believe that each area in the palm and the bottom of a foot represents a particular body part and insert small needles at the right pressure point for the body part to be taken care of.

Another illustration of the emphasis of organic relationships within the universe is found in the practice of fengshui (simplified characters {风水} traditional characters {風水}, literally meaning <wind-water>). Fengshui refers to Chinese geomancy, which is a pseudoscience. It claims to use energy ({氣} /qi/) or invisible forces that bind the universe, earth, and humans to harmonize the individual with his/her surroundings. It covers the altitude, prevailing wind, orientation toward the compass, and proximity to various bodies of water in the surroundings. There is no equivalency to fengshui or its counterpart found in the West Footnote 5 (Nisbett, 2003 ).

Along with Confucianism and Taoism, Buddhism was another key philosophy that contributed to the culture and the people’s minds in China and the East. The Buddhist philosophy consists of the teachings and reflections of Buddha (between sixth and fourth century B.C.). As Buddhism was spread across Asian countries beyond India, it became trans-regional and trans-cultural. It endorses the concept of self-less (i.e., no fixed personal identity due to constant changes) and emptiness (i.e., nonexistence or the ephemerality of everything). Buddhism involves beliefs and practices of transcendental divinity and the spiritual insight of natural emptiness . The Buddhist philosophical tradition traveled to China from India and continued to develop in the Tibetan and East Asian Buddhist traditions.

Taoism, along with Confucianism and Buddhism, has permeated into Chinese history, tradition, philosophy, and public wisdom. Confucianism has gone through a rise and fall according to China’s political doctrines and regime’s politics. Despite the differences across Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism, the three philosophical traditions share commonalities in seeking harmonization. There is an old painting that can be found on the Internet, which portrays three men, Confucius, Laozi, and Buddha, laughing by a river stream, which is entitled “Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism Are One”. The paining symbolically shows Chinese people’s tolerance and agreeable interpenetrations of religious ideas such that different views can come together in harmony. Hence, religious wars in the East have been rare in history (Nisbett, 2003 ; Shlain, 1998 ).

2.2 Characteristics Typically Found in Easterners and Westerners

Based on the aforementioned empirical findings in social psychology, cognitive psychology, and applied linguistics, Table 6.2 summarizes key characteristics demonstrated by Easterners and Westerners. The nature of the characteristics is not binary. However, they were summarized for the purpose of juxtaposition.

For Asians, the world and Nature are simply too complex and their subcomponents are too interactive to be categorized in a simplistic way. Therefore, they focus on relationships among subcomponents of the world and Nature. The lack of interest in categories and classifications might have prevented Asians from discovering laws that allow them to explain classes of events or objects. Under the traditions of Confucianism and Taoism, the Chinese were inclined to look outward toward their peers and upward toward authorities in carrying out their economic, social, and political business (Nisbett, 2003 ). As research shows, Westerners have the tendency of attending to objects and events in a way that objects are taxonomically arranged and categorized. This can be one explanation of research findings by Nisbett and colleagues about Asians’ focus on relationships and European Americans’ tendency to categorize stimuli (Chua, Boland, & Nisbett, 2005 ; Ji, Peng, & Nisbett, 2000 ; Nisbett, 2003 ; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001 ).

As briefly mentioned earlier, the West has a tradition of syllogism, which is based on deductive reasoning. Westerners are generally in the habit of applying logical rules to ordinary events and are likely to forego the plausibility of conclusions. In contrast, East Asians are more likely to set deductive logic aside in favor of the desirability and plausibility of conclusions. Each case is understood within context, which allows inductive reasoning to set in. Conclusions tend to be reached by understanding the context first and then subscribing to the general standard and complying with it.

Logic can be seen as a cognitive tool that is developed to understand the principles of natural and social operations and to deal with social matters. A style of reasoning was developed as a Chinese way of logic, which is called dialecticism, that focuses not only on contradictions, but also on how to resolve them, transcend them, or find the truth in both (Nisbett, 2003 ). This is different from the Hegelian dialectic because the Chinese dialectic deals with contradictions to understand relationships among objects or events in order to transcend oppositions (Nisbett, 2003 ). The Hegelian dialectic uses the cycle of thesis-antithesis-synthesis to obliterate contradictions instead of embracing or transcending them in order to understand objects or events better.

Social practices can influence habitual thinking and the way of conflict resolution. Under the traditions of Confucianism and Taoism, debate is not encouraged and is considered disrespectful in Asian culture; hence, the combative rhetoric was absent in Asian ideology. Whenever conflict arises, Asians tend to be oriented toward a Middle Way to reduce animosity between both parties instead of seeking fairness. Asians have the tendency of considering both other people and their own goals in search of the benefit of themselves by not being overly constrained by their relationships with other people (Nisbett, 2003 ). The difference in the ways of conflict resolution and the priorities placed in the East and the West is observed in the current practice of law in Asia and the U.S. According to Nisbett ( 2003 ), not only is the ratio of attorneys to engineers 40 times lower in Japan than in the U.S., but also the expected role of lawyers is different between the U.S. and Asian countries. The U.S. lawyers’ emphasis is placed on confrontations and defense as well as on demands for justice in terms of winners versus losers within the legal system. However, lawyers in the Eastern countries serve more as intermediaries or mediators to reach compromises ( Middle Way ) in order to reduce hostilities between both parties involved in the legal system (Nisbett, 2003 ).

Due to their foci on rules for conducting debate, the principle of non-contradiction, and formal logic, Westerners might have been able to develop scientific modes of inquiry and thus yield modern scientific achievements. It is natural to make an advancement from logic to science, because science can be viewed as an extension of logic and rhetoric. Since the standard logic hypothesis-evidence-conclusion that is used for geometric proofs applies to debate and rhetoric, a geometric proof essentially involves rhetoric (Cromer, 1993 ; Nisbett, 2003 ). In contrast to their advances in algebra and arithmetic, the Chinese made little advancement in geometry-related realms because formal logic and the principle of contradictions, which were crucial components for geometric proofs, were not considered important for them (Logan, 2004 ; Nisbett, 2003 ). Cromer ( 1993 ) also argued that ““It [science] originated in the democratic practices of ancient Greece, which replaced private dogma with public debate” (p. 250)

In summary, since the Eastern orientation toward Nature and humanity is concrete, abstract speculation was discouraged. This is different from the abstraction infused in the Greek philosophy. Given the order of existence (i.e., scripts preexisted all philosophical and cultural groundworks), the predated scripts might have influenced the cultural differences between the East and the West because Chinese characters are relatively concrete, compared to the alphabet’s arbitrariness and abstraction.

3 Interpretations of the difference between the East and the West

3.1 diamond’s guns, germs, and steel.

Diamond ( 1999 ) is a keen observer of the different developmental trajectories of human societies and human history across continents on the globe. Diamond ( 1999 ) questions why history has unfolded differently on different continents in the world. This is a fundamental question to understand human history and historical inequalities and to predict a future path. The continents of sub-Saharan Africa, the Americas, Island Southeast Asia, Australia, New Guinea, and the Pacific Islands have shown the various trajectories of civilization and historical inequalities among the continents. Some societies developed literate industrial systems, while other societies developed only non-literate farming systems for a long time. Some societies still remained in a hunter-gathers stage with stone tools (Diamond, 1999 ). Diamond examines a large set of contrasts of the regions in light of colonial expansions, technical and political differences, different rates of development, linguistic reverberations, mode of civilization, and environmental differences across continents from the lens of anthropology, behavioral ecology, epidemiology, archeology, and linguistics.

In order to identify a chain of courses to explain why human development has proceeded at different modes and different rates of civilizations on the different continents in history, Diamond provides several explanations. First, biological differences in innate abilities among peoples, such as intelligence, can be a factor behind the advancement of modernized societies or the disparate rates that different societies have shown in the course of civilization. Based on his 33 years of work with New Guineans, however, Diamond completely dismisses a genetic factor as a determiner of the mode and rate of civilizations among the continents. He claims that IQ test results are the outcomes of cultural learning based on childhood environments and learned knowledge, which are not a true measure of pure innate intelligence.

Second, the seasonally variable climate can be a cause that explains the process of civilization because it is assumed that human creativity and energy are stimulated by a cold climate but are fended off by a hot, humid, and tropical climate. The assumed stimulatory effects of the cold climate and the inhibitory effects of hot and humid climate might have stemmed from the view that the seasonally variable climate tends to pose more diverse challenges for living than does a seasonally constant tropical climate. The challenges in the cold climate, coupled with the long winter at high latitudes that left people with more time to stay indoors and invented necessities, might have resulted in more technological invention for survival. However, Diamond dismisses this explanation as well because “…the peoples of northern Europe contribute nothing of fundamental importance to Eurasian civilization until the last thousand years…” (p. 22).

Third, irrigation systems in agricultural regions, such as China, India, and Peru, can be another explanation because large-scale irrigation system required centralized bureaucracies, and, in turn, centralized political systems. However, archaeological evidence shows that political centralization arose before controlled complex irrigation systems for other reasons (Diamond, 1999 ).

The fourth explanation has to do with factors including European guns, infectious diseases, steel tools, and manufactured products, which enabled Europeans to invade other peoples to conquer for imperialism. In short, it boils down to the effects of guns, germs, and steel on the disparate routes taken in different continents. Such an explanation is plausible for explaining the pathways of civilizations in the world. However, Diamond claims that this explanation is still incomplete because it does not offer an ultimate explanation for the identification of responsible causes for the unequal rates and modes of civilization in world history. In other words, this account does not explain why Europeans, rather than other groups, were able to make guns, ended up with germs, and were able to use steel. According to Diamond, the query continues until we have a convincing, comprehensive, and agreed-upon explanation to account for the broad pattern of world history.

Diamond ( 1999 ) summarizes his book, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies , in one sentence as follows: “History followed different courses for different people because of differences among people’s environments, not because of biological differences among peoples themselves” (p. 25). He might as well adopt the notion of environmental geography and biogeography in order to explain the lopsided historical and developmental trajectories across societies in world history. The notion of geography is directly linked to the gist of Nisbett’s ( 2003 ) argument. In the following section, Nisbett’s book entitled The Geography of Thought: How Asians and Westerners Think Differently…and Why is briefly discussed.

3.2 Nisbett’s The Geography of Thought

Nisbett ( 2003 ) meshes cultural intricacies with a broad concept of geography situated in the East and the West. Nisbett ( 2003 ) claims that human behavior is a function of culture and that the difference between the East and the West results from the difference in ecological systems, along with social structures, philosophies, and educational systems. Nisbett ( 2003 ) attempts to understand how Asians and Westerners think differently and explains the reason behind the variabilities in his book The Geography of Thought. He finds the source of the differences between the East and the West in the geography of Greece and China. Greece is viewed as the cradle of western civilization as well as the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy, literature and drama, major scientific and mathematical principles, and historiography. Greece is a transcontinental country situated at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa, comprising a mountainous peninsular mainland and numerous islands. Greece is one of the most mountainous countries in Europe with about 80% of the land covered with mountains and hills. This ecology made the Greek rely more on hunting, herding, fishing, shipping, and trade than other options.

Nisbett ( 2003 ) notes that Greece was uniquely different from all contemporary civilizations in the development of individuality, personal freedom, objective thought, rational argument, and political systems. Greece’s geographical ecosystem was suitable to maritime trade, which was lucrative for the Greeks in antiquity. This led to the Greeks’ focus on shipping and oceanic industries that have been a key element of Greek economy since ancient times. Activities, such as hunting, fishing, shipping, and trade require a comparatively low level of cooperation with others. The geographical environment made the ancient Greeks develop a strong sense of individual identity as well as a sense of personal agency, which led the Greeks to a firmly individualistic mentality.

The ancient Greeks subscribed to plays, poetry readings, and philosophies by attending gatherings to share knowledge for personal growth at Epidaurus from dawn till dusk for several days in a row as special occasions in the period from the sixth to the third century B.C. (Nisbett, 2003 ). A theater built into a hillside at Epidaurus, which was known as the birthplace of Apollo’s son Asclepius in Greece, held about 14,000 people. With the tradition of attending plays and poetry sharing on special occasions, it is not surprising that the word “school” comes from the Greek word for “leisure” scholé . The legacy of Aristotle made the Greeks coalesce the classical ideal for education with Greek philosophy in pursuit of knowledge. Under Greek philosophy, individual freedom and curiosity about the world were encouraged, coupled with a sense of agency. The Greeks’ sense of agency and individuality also helped establish the tradition of debate. The logic of debate influenced the approach to law and order. This laid a foundation for democracy in the fifth century B.C. (Nisbett, 2003 ). Science or the scientific mind was also reinforced by logic, and, in turn, shaped the Greek style of rhetoric.

The geographical ecology in ancient China was different from that of ancient Greece. China was the cradle of Eastern civilization as the birthplace of Eastern philosophical traditions. Ancient China had relatively low mountains compared to Greece, fertile grasslands, and rivers, which encouraged the people to adopt agriculture especially in southern China. Agricultural people need to live and work in harmony in a reasonably cooperative fashion to deal with seasonal labor-intensive agricultural work (Nisbett, 2003 ). As opposed to the Greeks’ attendance at plays and poetry readings as special occasion events, Chinese special-occasion events were primarily visiting and spending time with friends and family (Nisbett, 2003 ). These activities reinforced a sense of group harmony and the importance of consensus among members. In addition, rice farming required irrigation to be regulated, which resulted in the society’s centralized control over irrigation systems. This means that environmental ecology affected Chinese livelihood, modes of living, social structures, and state involvement in people’s everyday lives, resulting in central control of irrigation systems. The Chinese’s acceptance of the centralized control in antiquity might have to do with their tolerance of top-down governance. This is consistent with the aforementioned Hofstede’s cultural scales. Specifically, Chinese people tend to show a higher scale score on Power Distance than that of the Japanese (80 vs. 40, respectively) on Power Distance (Hofstede et al., 2010 ). This means that the Chinese are more tolerant of the unequal distribution of power in society than the Japanese.

The implied homeostasis is also an important implication of the view of the causes of Greek and Chinese mental differences (Nisbett, 2003 ). With the agricultural tradition in China, which requires cooperation with others, the Chinese are less concerned with personal goals or self-aggrandizement than are Westerners. As a result, group goals and coordinated actions are more often their concerns than individual gratification and growth.

3.3 Logan’s The Alphabet Effect

Diamond’s analysis of different routes taken for civilizations among the continents in the world as well as Nisbett’s geographical and social-psychological interpretation of differences in the East and the West have keen points in their own right. Masuda and Nisbett ( 2001 ) claim that cultural systems influence the mode of attention and further the culture-specific patterns of attention. A series of cross-cultural studies converge on Easterners’ holistic and Westerners’ analytic thinking styles (Miyamoto et al. 2006 ; Nisbett, 2003 ; Nisbett & Masuda, 2003 ; Nisbett et al., 2001 ). What is still unknown is a more microscopic enabler of perception, cognition, and thought patterns than culture, because culture is still a broad term.

The writing system has played an instrumental role in the development of the styles of information processing in the East and the West. In a study of the evolution of writing systems, Logan ( 2004 ) describes how phonetic writing, the alphabet in particular, has molded the development of Western civilizations and intellectual and cultural growth, particularly compared to the Chinese writing system. He claims, in an attempt to understand the making of Western civilization, that the alphabet promotes cognitive skills in the dimensions of abstraction, analysis, coding, and classification. Although Logan meshes Western civilization with the alphabet effect, the influence of written language has already been fermented by Innis ( 1972 ) and Ong ( 1982 ) in earlier days, who explored the changes in our thought processes and social structures as a result of literacy.

Since the alphabet uses a smaller number of graphs to represent spoken language (i.e., the economy of symbols in alphabetic systems), a greater level of abstraction and analytic skills is required to decode phonemic symbols, than in Chinese characters, which, in turn, contributes to the user’s cognitive development in a particular way. Given that the West primarily uses the alphabetic writing system, the alphabet has made a significant impact on Westerners’ cognition and thought patterns. Logan ( 2004 ) suggests that, due to the use of alphabet, the ancestors of Westerners were able to develop codified law, monotheism, abstract science, deductive logic, and individualism. In contrast, Chinese characters promote holistic, intuitive, polytheistic characteristics of the Chinese due to the logographic characteristics of the Chinese written language.

Logan ( 2004 ) has received criticisms by the public and Chinese scholars for the sweeping overgeneralization and for degrading Chinese characters and cultural characteristics based on his claim that Westerners are generally rational and analytic and that the Chinese are mystical and holistic due to the different writing systems. It is worthwhile to reassess the role of the writing system in our cognition and thought because we are bombarded with text and are constantly reading in print or online. According to Logan ( 2004 ), reading in alphabetic scripts is under influence of the intellectual by-products of reading or scientific and logical thinking, such as abstraction, rational analysis, and classification, which are predominantly provided by the alphabet. Despite this contentious claim, research findings in social psychology support Logan’s claim (see the Attention and Perception as well as Problem-Solving Strategies sections in this chapter). The counterargument from the alternative hypothesis (i.e., the writing system has no effect on cognition Footnote 6 ) is difficult to prove. Since the alphabet effect is covered again in Chapter 7 , the Consequences of Reading, further discussions are reserved to the following chapter.

4 Toward the New Direction, Script Relativity

Although it is not an exaustive review of the differences between the East and the West, this chapter has provided a condensed survey of philosophical underpinnings as well as cultural and behavioral characteristics of the peoples in the two hemispheres of the globe based on empirical research, collective views of scholars, and my anecdotal observations. Masuda ( 2017 ) notes that it is time to explain the subcomponents of holistic versus analytic culture as well as the thought patterns of cultural members and to go beyond the dichotomous characterization. She also calls for further research on other dimensions of a society that influence culture and group members’ social behaviors.

Diamond ( 1999 ) notes that “[a]s of the year A.D. 1500, … Europe’s worldwide colonial expansion was just beginning…” (p. 15) and continues to state that “… those technological and political differences as of A.D. 1500 were the immediate cause of the modern world’s inequalities. Empires with steel weapons were able to conquer or exterminate tribes with weapons of stone and wood. How, though, did the world get to be the way it was in A.D. 1500?” (p. 16). Diamond answers the question with the identification of the three factors of guns , germs , and steel that contributed to the pathways of civilizations in world history. He also asserts that the “[d]ifferent rates of development on different continents from 11,000 B.C. to A.D. 1500 were what led to the technological and political inequalities of A.D. 1500” (p. 16). Although he does not point it out, it is not coincidental that 11,000 B.C. was about the time writing started to emerge and that A.D. 1500 is around the time when information dissemination was revolutionary more than ever before due to the invention of metal movable printing in the West Footnote 7 . The 42-line-per-page Gutenberg Bible was first published in 1455. These two timepoints bear a significant meaning that gives rise to script relativity.

Diamond ( 1999 ) also explains the civilization of Australia while dismissing a genetic factor as an explanatory cause of the disparity in the rate and mode of civilizations. European immigrants to Australia built a literate, industrialized, politically centralized, and democratic society within a century, whereas the aborigines remained the same tribal hunter-gatherers stage. Diamond poses a question “What further proof could be wanted to establish that the differences between Aboriginal Australian and European societies arose from differences between the peoples themselves?” (p. 19), after pointing out that “the environment was identical and the sole variable was the people occupying that environment” (p. 19). Diamond elucidates how metal tools and food production allowed the Europeans immigrants to Australia to spearhead the civilizations and conquer the aborigines who did not use metal. Despite the valid point, what is missing in Diamond’s argument is the presence and effect of written language. When they occupied the Australian tribes, Europeans had a solid form of written language, while the Australian tribes did not.

Diamond ( 1999 ) also notes that China was technologically more advanced and more innovative than Western Eurasia until A.D. 1400. Again, this period coincides well with the explosion of literacy due to movable metal printing in the West. During the dynastic period in China, which ended in 1911, literacy was confined to “a tiny upper crust of males while preventing the spread of functional literacy among the masses” (Taylor & Taylor, 2014 , p. 89). The Confucius classics and other books were the main subject of the institutionalized civil-service examination in ancient China, which was the royal ticket for social upward mobility. Since Chinese characters are complex and are not easy to learn, it was easy for the upper class to monopolize literacy. As shown in the following poem written by a Song emperor, “books” were considered a means to “enrich your family” as “houses of gold,” which is different from that of industrialized capitalist societies.

To enrich your family, no need to buy good land: Books hold a thousand measures of grain. For an easy life, no need to build a mansion: In books are found houses of gold…. A boy who wants to become somebody Devotes himself to the classics, faces the window, and reads (Miyazaki, 1963/1981 , p. 17, cited in Taylor & Taylor, p 91).

After the dynastic period, China was still able to restrict literacy with the establishment of the communist People’s Republic from 1949. However, the West has gone through a different trajectory due to the phonetic writing system which was much easier to learn to read than Chinese characters and due to metal printing that was instrumental for promoting literacy among the masses. In short, the alphabetic writing system contributed to the establishment of democratic information sharing (Logan, 2004 ; Wolf, 2007 ). In this line, it is not surprising to find that current information-sharing endeavors and open-access information have begun and been materialized by individuals whose written language is the alphabet.

As indicated in the Prologue and Chapter 1 , oral languages that do not have corresponding written languages are more likely to disappear in the world. If there is a truth to Logan’s ( 2004 ) claim regarding the alphabet effect on promoting more deductive, linear, scientific thought, the recent surge of Chinese economy and technological development may have to do with the supplementary use of Pinyin to their characters and, in turn, recently gained high literacy rates. This phenomenon is not remote from script effects, which is the script relativity hypothesis , the main thesis of this book.

In a similar vein, as mentioned in the Prologue, South Korea’s economy rapidly boomed into a developed country within less than 50 years from a war-torn developing country after the Korean War (1950–1953), which is dubbed the “miracle on the Han river.” Factors, such as strong political leadership, healthy nationalism or patriotism, and hard work of the labor force stemming from Confucius values and ethics, can be attributable to the rapid transformation. However, I truly believe that Hangul was behind the phenomenal socio-economic growth, because the Koreans had already had those characteristics in history but had never achieved such a success before the “miracle on the Han river” in recent decades. With the high literacy rate due to Hangul’s great learnability and its effect (i.e., alphabet effects), the Koreans were able to achieve such a success. Notwithstanding the small size of the population (51 million), compared to that of any developed country, the Koreans continue to excel in the many sectors, such as mobile devices, K-pop, K-drama, films, and cosmetics.

The findings of social psychological studies are particularly related to script relativity . As reviewed earlier, Easterners have tendencies to rely on context-based and background information in a holistic fashion, while Westerners tend to zero in on particular information presented at the center in an analytic way (Masuda & Nisbett, 2001 ; Miyamoto, Nisbett, & Masuda, 2006 ; Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001 ). These findings may be attributable to the script characteristics of Chinese and English. Chinese characters are processed holistically and, as a result, Chinese readers process objects and situations more holistically than Westerners. In the same vein, the alphabet is processed serially Footnote 8 (Coltheart et al., 2001 ; White, Johnson, Liversedge, & Rayner, 2008 ; Whitney, 2001 ), unless words are orthographically irregular, and, as a result, alphabetic readers process objects and situations more analytically than Chinese. In particular, Ji et al.’s ( 2004 ) study shows significant language effects among adults from Mainland China and Taiwan and from the U.S. and Mainland China when they were tested in Chinese compared to when tested in English, but no language effects were found among the bilingual groups from Hong Kong and Singapore. These language effects can be further extended to script effects because all participants in the aforementioned studies are university students who have been literate for about two decades.

From a microscopic view, variations are also found within the three East-Asian cultures. Although some East-Asian culture is shared in general, social values, modes of operating societal norms, and ideological or religious preferences are different among the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans. Historically, Chinese characters were used in all three nations until the Korean government removed Hanja from the national curriculum in K-12 settings (some Korean parents still make their children Hanja learn through private lessons). The common use of the morphosyllabary might have generated the shared East-Asian culture among the three nations. However, the Koreans’ Hangul use might have been reinforcing the aforementioned differences in the East-Asian nations. The existing interpretations of the locus of the differences (i.e., geography and environment), as reviewed earlier, cannot explain those specific differences among the three cultural groups. Script relativity would be an alternative or the best account to explain them.

In the following chapter, the consequence of reading is discussed from an ecosystem perspective. Chapter 8 discusses script effects based on psycholinguistic research findings. Chapter 9 discusses script relativity using the findings of neuroimaging studies.

This is a wordless black-and-white picture book containing 24 pictures with a storyline of a boy and his dog’s effort and adventure in finding their pet frog that ran away from their house.

Given that pinyin notation is Dào , Daoism may be more suitable than Taoism.

This yin and yang symbol is embedded in the Korean national flag.

As the yin-yang opposites signify, all things of the world move in the cycle of appearing-and-dissolving or contracting-and-expanding.

A reviewer pointed out Western geomancy as a possible equivalent to fengsui . I view that Western geomancy and fengsui are different from each other, as Nisbett ( 2003 ) mentions.

A reviewer states that that “cognition had an effect on the development of the writing system and not the other way round.” This assertion needs to be scientifically backed up. So far, there is no research evidence that supports this claim.

Korea was the first country in the world to invent a movable metal type printing machine during the Goryo dynasty in 1377. This was 78 years earlier than the Gutenberg 42-line Bible published in 1455. The first publication that used the movable metal type printing technology was a book of Buddhist teachings, Jikji , written by a monk named Baekun (白雲), as mentioned in Chapter 5. This historical feat had been buried for a long time because a French missionary to Korea took Jikji to France and the book had been in the Collection of the National Library of France since 1890. The credit for the first movable metal printing in the world was finally granted in 1972 when a Korean scholar found it in the national library in France.

White et al. ( 2008 ) indicated that “letters within words are processed serially rather than in parallel, at least for early word processing” (p. 1274). Since reading models, such as the dual-route model (Coltheart et al., 2001 ), the SERIOL model (Whitney, 2001 ), or the connectionist model, are beyond the scope of this book, no further discussion is provided here.

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Pae, H.K. (2020). The East and the West. In: Script Effects as the Hidden Drive of the Mind, Cognition, and Culture. Literacy Studies, vol 21. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-55152-0_6

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Key Differences

Know the Differences & Comparisons

Difference Between Indian Culture and Western Culture

On the other hand, Western culture , it is quite advanced and open. The norms, beliefs, values, traditions, customs and practices are greatly inspired by European culture. Moreover, Western Culture includes British culture, French culture, Spanish culture

In this article, you will find the most important differences between Indian Culture and Western Culture.

Content: Indian Culture Vs Western Culture

Comparison chart.

Basis for Comparison	Indian Culture	Western Culture
Meaning	The culture which is followed in India, is Indian culture.	The culture which is followed in most western countries like USA, Spain, Canada, Europe etc. is known as Western culture.
Religion	Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism.	Christianity, Judaism.
Family	Joint and nuclear family	Nuclear family
Music	Folk, Classical, Sufi, Bollywood music is liked in Indian culture.	Hip-hop, Jazz, Blues, Rap, Heavy metal, Rock music is appreciated in western culture.
Languages	Hindi is the highly spoken language, but there are many other languages which are spoken in different areas like Telegu, Tamil, Marathi, Punjabi, Bengali, Bihari, Urdu etc.	English is widely spoken in western countries, followed by French and Spanish.
Marriages	Arranged marriages are preferred.	Love marriages are common.
Clothing	Traditional clothing depends upon region and religion.	A person can wear whatever he / she likes.

About Indian Culture

Indian Culture is the ancient and one of the most popular cultures in the world. India is very well known for its rich cultural heritage which is a combination of customs, traditions, lifestyle, religion, languages, rituals, cuisine, etc. depending upon area. Here you can see unity in diversity like people belonging to different religions live happily.

Guests are considered God here, people welcomed them with joined hands and a smile on their face. Not only the guests but here people worship animals, statues, rivers, stones, trees, kids, etc.

Indian Culture is now divided into two categories which are traditional and the modern one. In traditional culture, people give more importance to their society. Community comes first according to them, but this scenario is changing slowly with the impact of westernization.

About 3-4 decades ago, only arranged marriages are common, where the parents of the bride and groom choose the spouse for their child and then decides about the marriage but now love marriages are also equally respected.

There are so many festivals celebrated in the country like Holi, Diwali, Dusshera, Eid-UL-Fitr, Christmas, Baisakhi, Navratri, Muharram, etc. Here you can see the variety of clothing depending on the region. The Indian woman prefers Saree or Salwar Kameez with dupatta whereas Dhoti Kurta, and Kurta Payjama is the traditional outfit of men in India.

Here, transparent, revealing and tight fit dresses are not likened. Hindi is the most popular language of the country, but there are 122 major languages which are spoken in India. In India, there are is a wide variety of cuisines like northern, southern, eastern, western, etc. which differ in spices and ways of making them. Indian sculpture, architecture is also world famous.

About Western Culture

Western Culture is referred as the modern and advanced culture in the world. The main pillars of the western culture are capitalism, individualism, rights, ethical values, etc. You can see western culture in America, Germany, Spain, Europe, etc. Here most people belong to Christianity and Judaism.

People give more importance to their wants, needs, desires and happiness. Nobody here has time to think what other people thinks about them because they are busy in doing their own business.

If we talk about marriages, love marriages and consented marriages are very popular in western countries. People do not have a strong bond with their family; they leave home after reaching certain age to become self-dependent. Youngsters learn and earn at the same time.

Western architecture, paintings, and music are highly admired across the world. Ballet dance and ballroom dance are the popular dance forms here. In western countries, people are more concerned about their health, and that is why they prefer heavy lunch and a light dinner. Their food contains less oil and spices.

When its about clothing, people like to wear what the desire, there is no restriction on wearing anything. English, French, American, Spanish, etc. are the most common languages spoken in the Western countries.

Key Differences Between Indian Culture and Western Culture

The following are the major differences between Indian Culture and Western Culture

The culture which is prevalent in India is known as Indian Culture. The culture, widespread in the western countries is known as Western Culture.
Indian Culture has a variety of religions like Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, etc. while in Western Culture the people mostly belong to Christianity.
In Indian Culture, joint families are common, however nuclear families are also there. Conversely, In Western Culture, small families are there.
The traditional Indian outfit is worn in Indian Culture, although nowadays with the influence of western culture, western clothing is also preferred by the people. In contrast to Western culture, there is no such traditional outfit.
A variety of Folk, Classical, Bollywood songs is preferred in Indian Culture. On the other hand, Western Culture promotes Hip-Hop, Jazz, Blues, Rap, Heavy Metal and Rock music.
Hindi is mainly spoken in Indian Culture but in the case of Western Culture, English is spoken in a high ratio.
Indian Culture is not that more open as compared to Western Culture.

Both Indian Culture and Western Culture are right at their places. There is a lot to learn from both the cultures. For last few decades, Indian culture has been influenced by the western culture, and they are adopting the merits of the western culture like cleanliness, equal rights for both men and women, frankness, etc. which helped in removing the shortcomings of Indian culture. Similarly, western culture is also getting an Indian touch regarding Indian cuisine and yoga.

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Er. Md Nadeem Alam says

October 21, 2015 at 12:07 pm

Its really cool

October 9, 2021 at 9:43 am

Really you are awesome.

August 3, 2016 at 4:27 pm

Saved my life

November 15, 2016 at 11:08 pm

Naim choudhary says

July 18, 2017 at 3:04 pm

very big difference between India culture and western culture

Sour Knight says

November 22, 2016 at 7:17 am

Thank u. ☺☺☺

mrunal jadhav says

December 12, 2016 at 11:22 am

nice ! quite impressive i think both the culture have equal values in the today’s life

April 8, 2017 at 2:02 pm

Thanks to information

November 17, 2017 at 7:17 pm

wow that was good can i get the same like how are western festivals and indian festivals mix and give values to our lives.

Abhishek Mallav says

November 23, 2017 at 7:03 pm

Very Perfect Information

Uma Shankar says

November 27, 2017 at 5:34 pm

Really big difference between Indian and western culture. Thank you

Shrawani says

November 30, 2017 at 11:08 am

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Siddhart Gopalam says

April 20, 2018 at 8:25 pm

I love it. I’m an American Born Desi and I am often torn because I have two integral cultures, which are those mentioned above. Most people would say I should choose one over the other, but this displays everything perfectly. Thank you!

June 26, 2018 at 12:41 pm

Indian culture is one of the richest and oldest cultures in the world. Thanks for sharing this comparison. Keep updating such more posts

Alice Carroll says

September 28, 2020 at 5:21 am

Thanks for pointing out that one key distinction of Indian food is the amount of spices in their food. I’ve always wanted to try out new chicken recipes because it’s fascinating to me how common it is as a source of protein and yet every culture tends to have a different take in cooking it. Maybe when I start needing to have a higher protein intake for my diet, I should consider eating from Indian restaurants.

January 10, 2021 at 5:20 pm

I like it. short and simple with cover all the information about both culture

ganesh nandgure says

August 21, 2021 at 7:14 pm

It is the most prominent Information share by the portal. It is more give the strength to both cultures. and both culture is widely important at their places.

Priyanka says

October 22, 2021 at 1:37 pm

That was very optimal whatever you told us about western culture and Indian culture

mumtaz molai says

June 25, 2022 at 8:25 am

Awesome article thanks for sharing!

Chayanika says

July 27, 2022 at 7:47 am

August 2, 2022 at 9:37 pm

It was really nice

I’ll like it

August 3, 2022 at 3:12 pm

It was really very nice

Thank you so much

Please keep sending articles like it

October 17, 2022 at 11:15 am

thanks a lot

Manisha says

November 15, 2022 at 10:31 pm

It helped a lot. Thank you

Maininder saini says

January 18, 2023 at 1:47 pm

This article helped me so much in my project file Awesome article……👌 Thanks for posting this 🙏

January 27, 2023 at 6:34 pm

Thank you for sharing a post, nice to read it, good work, keep going

Surendra Kumar says

February 10, 2024 at 3:38 pm

The difference between Indian culture and western. the way you explained. its really amazing, it’s very helpful for us to understand the key difference of our cultures , thanks for providing us such types of Information.

Job Market Slows Significantly, Raising Economic Jitters

U.S. employers added 114,000 jobs in July, far short of forecasts, and unemployment rose to 4.3 percent, the highest level since 2021.

Share full article

Monthly change in jobs

+114,000 jobs in July

By Sydney Ember

American employers reined in their hiring significantly in July, intensifying jitters that the economy is cooling faster than expected.

Payrolls grew by 114,000, the Labor Department reported on Friday, the second smallest gain in a 43-month period of consistent job growth. The unemployment rate rose to 4.3 percent, the highest level since October 2021, when anxiety about the pandemic was still elevated.

The report added to worries that Federal Reserve officials, who have been holding off on cutting interest rates until they see more data that indicates inflation is coming under control, may have waited too long , potentially sending the labor market into a hard-to-arrest downward spiral. Fed policymakers left the benchmark interest rate at 5.3 percent at their meeting this week but suggested that a rate cut could be on the table at their next gathering, in mid-September.

“I’m not pushing the panic button at this point,” said Robert Frick, the corporate economist at the Navy Federal Credit Union. “But it is a cause for concern, and it certainly indicates the Fed is behind the curve in cutting rates.”

Wage growth and inflation slowed

Year-over-year percentage change in earnings vs. inflation

+3.6% in July

+3% in June

Consumer Price Index

Avg. hourly earnings

Wage growth decelerated in July, with average hourly earnings up 0.2 percent from the previous month and 3.6 percent from a year earlier. The number of people working part time who would have preferred full-time employment also increased, while the number of hours worked per week ticked down slightly, both signals that the demand for workers is slackening.

Job gains were concentrated in a few areas

Change in jobs in July 2024, by sector

Education and health

+57,000 jobs

Construction

Leisure and hospitality

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Download book PDF. Download book EPUB. Script Effects as the Hidden Drive of the Mind, Cognition, and Culture ... Social psychologists have shown that Eastern culture is group-oriented, while Western culture is individual-centered ... 2018), as shown in an argumentative essay written by a native Japanese speaker: "The majority of Japanese may ...
(PDF) An essay on culture
Bourdieu sees an (empirical) truth about art, but never the. (phenomenological) truth of art. 1 e empirical or scienti c truth about. art is the truth as it appears to an observer which is not art ...
PDF The Effects of Western Civilisation and Culture on Africa
Western culture now is regarded as frontline civilisation. African ways of doing things became primitive, archaic and regrettably unacceptable in public domain. Not only were certain aspects of the material culture in the colonies lost or destroyed, colonial societies also lost the power and sense of cultural continuity, such that it became ...
PDF CHAPTER Defining Culture 1 and Identities
an "uncivilized" or "uncultured." The Oxford English Dictionary gives the contemporary definition as "a rude, wild, uncivilized person," but acknowl-edges the original meaning was "one whose language a. ker's."Nineteenth-Century DefinitionIn the 19th century, the term culture was commonly us.
IMPACT OF WESTERN CULTURE ON TRADITIONAL
culture and western culture, types of culture and characteristics of culture, causes of culture change and impact of Western culture on traditional African society: problems and prospects. The research recommends amongst others that in order to avoid African culture extinction, there is an urgent need for cultural restoration. Introduction
PDF Impact of Western Culture on University Students Lifestyle
eijas, Waldhausal, Lambert, Cassar & Bello-Corassa, 2016). The literature review also revealed a gap in the literature, that is the necessity to study how western culture impacting on university students' lifestyles (Kang & Chang, 2016; Rana &. aham, & Mayes, 2007; Zhang, 2000).Objectives of the StudyTo identify the impacts of Weste.
(Pdf) the Effects of Western Civilization on African Culture; a Case
This research intends to find out the influence of western culture on the Nigerians which tend to affect their norms and believe. The western culture has influenced Nigerians mostly the southwest youths in the following ways: 1. They hardly greet their elders due to their exposure to western culture through the media 2.
Difference Between Indian Culture and Western Culture
Conclusion. Both Indian Culture and Western Culture are right at their places. There is a lot to learn from both the cultures. For last few decades, Indian culture has been influenced by the western culture, and they are adopting the merits of the western culture like cleanliness, equal rights for both men and women, frankness, etc. which helped in removing the shortcomings of Indian culture.
PDF Old Western Culture
Year 4: Early Moderns Unit 1: Rise of England—Metaphysical Poets, Milton, and Shakespeare. Unit 2: Politcs and Poetry—Romantic and Victorian Poets in the Age of Revolution Unit 3: The Enlightenment—Kant, Galileo, Descartes, Newton, Hume, and Reid. Unit 4: The Novels—Austen, Dickens, Dostoevsky, and Lewis.
July Jobs Report: What to Know
U.S. employers added 114,000 jobs in July, far short of forecasts, and unemployment rose to 4.3 percent, the highest level since 2021. Monthly change in jobs +0 +100,000 +200,000 +300,000 July ...