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As you conduct your research for Portfolio Two, we ask that you keep track of your research process by using a Research Log. The research log can help you:

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There’s two major reasons for using a research log :

1.) It will keep you organized.   Rather than jotting notes in a notebook, filling in the required information for each column in a research log will ensure you’ve collected the needed information before moving on to the next source. You won’t have to keep returning to previous sources or struggle to remember how you found a source because your search terms and databases are in the log. You’ll also never lose a source or forget where a quote came from.

2) It will help you compare  your evidence. Having the evidence from all of  the sources in one place lets you look at the data side-by-side to evaluate which items would be best to include in your paper. Looking at all of the evidence in a research log can also help you refine your thesis before you begin drafting.

If you have to write a paper that requires research, this tool can save you a significant amount of time, and it could eliminate stress later on in your writing process.

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Twelve tips for successfully implementing logbooks in clinical training

Katrin schüttpelz-brauns.

a Heidelberg University , Germany

Elisabeth Narciss

Claudia schneyinck.

b University of Freiburg , Germany

Klaus Böhme

Peter brüstle, ulrike mau-holzmann.

c University of Tubingen , Germany

Maria Lammerding-Koeppel

Udo obertacke.

Background : Logbooks are widely used to set learning outcomes and to structure and standardize teaching in clinical settings. Experience shows that logbooks are not always optimally employed in clinical training. In this article, we have summarized our own experiences as well as results of studies into twelve tips on how to successfully implement logbooks into clinical settings.

Methods : We conducted both a workshop concerning the importance of logbook training to exchange experiences in teaching practice, organization, didactic knowledge and a literature research to compare our own experiences and add additional aspects.

Results : Tips include the process of developing the logbook itself, the change-management process, conditions of training and the integration of logbooks into the curriculum.

Conclusions : Logbooks can be a valuable tool for training in clinical settings, especially when multiple sites are involved, when you take our tips into consideration.

Introduction

To develop clinical expertise it is essential that learners receive integrated experiences, see polymorphic cases of typical diseases and can repeatedly practice their competencies in clinical settings (Regehr & Norman 1996 ). However, the quality of clinical teaching depends on the number and type of patients (Dolmans et al. 1999 ) as well as the educational expertise of the clinical teacher (Jolly 1994 ). Therefore, there is a great variation in trainees’ experience (Remmen et al. 2000 ). To ensure consistent quality and educational standards, logbooks have been introduced in clinical training. Logbooks are a collection of learning objectives and additional information concerning a specific educational period.

Logbooks are used all over the world from undergraduate to postgraduate training, in human, veterinary and dental medicine, nursing schools and pharmacy, either in paper or electronic format (cf. e.g. Luke et al. 1991 ; Dolmans et al. 1999 ; Dennick 2000 ; Patil & Lee 2002 ; Dahllof et al. 2004 ; Merry et al. 2006 ; Watters et al. 2006 ; Chou et al. 2009 ; Hogg et al. 2011 ; Yu et al. 2011 ; ÄAppO 2012 ; Khorashadizadeh & Alavinia 2012 ; Nikendei et al. 2012 ; Witt et al. 2012 ; Dale et al. 2013 ; Jenkins et al. 2013 ; Nizarali et al. 2014 ). In Germany, national discipline related logbooks such as in surgery and internal medicine (Medizinischer Fakultätentag 2012 ) or in general medicine (DEGAM 2013 ) were developed to guarantee a standardized minimum of clinical training over all faculties/hospitals in one discipline, especially since medical students in the practical (final) year can choose their sites from all over Germany (ÄAppO 2012 ). Therefore, using logbooks in clinical training is a statutory requirement in the practical (final) year of medical education of the German Medical Licensure Act (ÄAppO 2012 ).

Logbooks provide a clear setting of learning objectives and give trainees and clinical teachers a quick overview of the requirements of training and an idea of the learning progress. Logbooks are especially useful if different sites are involved in the training to set a (minimum) standard of training. Logbooks assist supervisors and trainees to see at one glance which learning objectives have not yet been accomplished and to set a learning plan.

Logbooks facilitate communication between the trainee and clinical teacher (Patil & Lee 2002 ; Nikendei et al. 2012 ). They help to structure and standardize learning in clinical settings (Kraus et al. 2007 ; Busemann et al. 2012 ; Wolfgarten et al. 2012 ), especially when multiple sites are involved (Luke et al. 1991 ; Hunter et al. 2004 ; Fullhase et al. 2008 ; Yu et al. 2011 ; Dale et al. 2013 ). Standardization of logbooks in clinical training can increase the number of performed procedures (Helenius et al. 2002 ). The analysis of logbooks can reveal weak points of training (Ferrell 1991 ; Chu et al. 2008 ) and can evaluate whether trainees have fulfilled the minimum requirements of training (Tschudi et al. 2003 ).

In practice, however, the use of logbooks is often deficient (Kadmon et al. 2009 ). Some studies have shown that logbooks do not improve clinical training (Busemann et al. 2012 ) and are not used for learning (Dolmans et al. 1999 ). Sometimes clinical staff members are not aware of the existence of the logbook (Remmen et al. 1998 ). In their study about the didactic quality of clerkships Remmen et al. ( 2000 ) showed that only a minority of clinical teachers knew the content of the list of skills included in the logbook and only a minority of trainees used the logbook. Logbooks may be used inconsistently (Witt et al. 2012 ). Documentations do not always show achieved objectives and gaps (Jolly 1999 ). Trainees often evaluate logbooks as boring and repetitive (Shumway & Harden 2003 ), as bureaucratic (Busemann et al. 2012 ) or not well accepted (Remmen et al. 1998 ). Documentation can be faked (Khorashadizadeh & Alavinia 2012 ) by just collecting signatures without performing the learning objectives (Kraus et al. 2007 ). Experience and studies show that logbooks are not always completed (Dolmans et al. 1999 ; Jolly 1999 ; Kadmon et al. 2009 ; Wolfgarten et al. 2012 ). This may be due to a discrepancy between the learning outcomes in the logbook and experiences offered in the clinical setting (Raghoebar-Krieger et al. 2001a ; Kraus et al. 2007 ) or that there are no consequences when they are not used (Denton et al. 2006 ).

In the summer of 2014 a workshop titled ‘Implementation of logbooks in clinical training’ was conducted with eleven participants from Germany and Switzerland involved in education during the final year and from five medical faculties to exchange experiences and best practice examples. After the workshop we searched the literature to compare the results of the workshop with findings from international experience, studies and reviews and to add missing aspects. The results of our work are summarized in this article.

Below we provide 12 tips on how to make the best use of logbooks within clinical training. The checklist in Table 1 summarizes the 12 tips.

Use all resources you can obtain and do not repeat work that has already been done

Before you start creating a new logbook see if there is already a logbook available for the discipline and stage of education. Then involve the people in the relevant discipline to help. Let them list the minimum standards of their department.

When you are going to develop a logbook for postgraduate training you may ask the concerned medical society if a logbook or minimum standard already exists. Take all the information into account when you write the learning outcomes. Show the draft to the staff members who are involved in clinical training and let them revise it.

Involve all stakeholders and embed the introduction of logbooks into a change management process

Acceptance by staff and supervising physicians is essential in order to implement logbooks in training within clinical settings (Kadmon et al. 2009 ). At our workshop, participants reported best practice when several stakeholders were involved in the development and implementation of logbooks. An internal survey at the medical faculty of Tuebingen showed that supervising physicians, mentors and students wanted to be involved. Involving supervising physicians and mentors to determine the logbook contents ensures local acceptability and feasibility with the additional benefit of combining training and agreed standards. Trainees can help to identify essential additional information that is needed in the logbook. All involved persons should know that all needs are being taken into account; thus, transparency of the whole process is very important (Schmidt & Hahn 2009 ). Set a realistic time frame with milestones.

Keep it short, simple and precise

Logbook content should be to the point (Watters et al. 2006 ; Wolfgarten et al. 2012 ) and presented in a clear structure (Vanek et al. 1993 ).

Ensure that the learning objectives are achievable during the assignment (Denton et al. 2006 ). Fewer objectives are better (Watters et al. 2006 ; Busemann et al. 2012 ), thus list the basic skills of your subject. Denton et al. ( 2006 ) found problems with misunderstandings and completion of pre-structured logbooks with given categories. In our workshop we agreed that exactly defined learning objectives are important. Luke et al. ( 1991 ) recommend assuring the flexibility of training with core learning objectives and practical activities. Khorashadizadeh & Alavinia ( 2012 ) concluded from their interviews that logbooks should allow the fast collection of valid, relevant and reliable data. The content of the logbook has to allow timely and easy data analysis (Denton et al. 2006 ). In the internal survey in Tuebingen (Germany) students liked the therapy guidelines and wanted additional information about important clinical pictures. In Heidelberg students liked the organizational part of the logbook (Kraus et al. 2007 ). These aspects can be added to the logbook to complement the list of learning objectives. A logbook is a compromise between simplicity and comprehensiveness. With the advent of electronic logbooks this might not be such a problem in future as there can be a simple ‘front end’ with opportunities to access further information ‘in the cloud’.

Mind legal issues

Logbooks are individual learning guides for trainees. Before implementing logbooks in clinical training, be mindful of issues of copyright/ownership in your country.

Including patient data in logbooks can decrease the effort in documenting, but at the same time leads to problems of data security (Merry et al. 2006 ). Watters et al. ( 2006 ) recommend keeping minimal and de-identified patient data in logbooks. The same applies to the personal data of the trainee.

Use a handy logbook format

Logbooks should be convenient to carry around. Therefore, weight and size are an issue, likewise the decision between digital and print options. Watters et al. ( 2006 ) recommend from their experience adaptable digital and mobile versions of logbooks. Furthermore, electronic logbooks simplify recording and analyzing data (Merry et al. 2006 ; Gomez Dias et al. 2015 ) and allow more efficient data access (Aphinives 2013 ). All trainees must have access to the digital logbook but not every trainee owns his or her own mobile device. Paper-based logbooks can be filled out easily, but are difficult to analyze and archive (Denton et al. 2006 ). Paper-based logbooks should be pocket-size (Dent & Davis 1995 ; Kadmon et al. 2009 ) and firm (Kraus et al. 2007 ). Irrespective of whether they are paper or electronic logbooks should be of low cost (Denton et al. 2006 ; Khorashadizadeh & Alavinia 2012 ).

Make the logbook an integral part of the curriculum

Learning outcomes in the logbook, learning practical procedures in clinical settings and assessment at the end of the educational period should be constructively aligned in the curriculum (Biggs 1996 , 1999 ; Treleaven & Voola 2008 ). That means learning outcomes defined in the curriculum and the learning objectives in the logbook should correspond. If logbooks are embedded in the curriculum, they can give trainees a structure, and help them to take responsibility for their own learning process (Dennick 2000 ). In our workshop participants reported a better quality of clinical training when the logbook was an integral part of the curriculum, e.g. objectives of the logbook were dealt within central teaching units of the faculty. Aligning learning objectives to requirements in the following assessment increases the importance of the logbook and therefore the utility for the trainee.

Mentor and supervise learning objectives

Documentation in logbooks is not reliable when not supervised (Raghoebar-Krieger et al. 2001b ). Wolfgarten et al. ( 2012 ) and participants of our workshop experienced that logbooks are often incomplete and flawed if there is no continuous mentoring. Therefore, mentoring is essential for successfully implementing training via logbooks in clinical settings (Schmidt & Hahn 2009 ). Schmidt & Hahn ( 2009 ) also suggest distinguishing between the role of a supervising physician and the role of a mentor: the supervising physician on the ward provides learning activities in day-to-day business and the mentor interacts with all the trainees in one department and supports their clinical development (Schmidt & Hahn 2009 ). Mentors and mentees can seal learning contracts to promote self-regulated learning via increasing autonomy and motivation and to foster communication (Nikendei et al. 2012 ; Dale et al. 2013 ). Supervising physicians need to review the logbook about biweekly, depending on the duration of the period, for fast information of requirements and potential learning gaps of their current trainees, whereas mentors have more time and resources to evaluate the learning progress and to use different learning tools (e.g. portfolio).

Provide time and space for teaching and learning

Experience in Germany has shown that restricted time and poor motivation of physicians has a negative impact on using logbooks in clinical training, whereas engagement of physicians in clinical training increases when they have commitment (Wolfgarten et al. 2012 ). Schmidt & Hahn ( 2009 ) conclude that you need resources to train with logbooks. This includes time for supervising and mentoring (Kadmon et al. 2009 ; Schmidt & Hahn 2009 ; Busemann et al. 2012 ) as well as time for clinical activities for trainees with less routine (Busemann et al. 2012 ). This emphasizes that there is a need for acceptance and appropriate support from the head of the respective department and the medical staff involved in clinical teaching.

Establish an easy going workflow

Establish an easy going workflow that involves updating logbook content, print and storage of logbooks, handing over logbooks to trainees, by faculty staff or mentors, introducing and explaining the utilization of the logbook, checking and collecting them and reviewing them after the educational period. Before implementing logbooks into clinical training, all staff members involved in the administration of logbooks, such as secretaries in the dean’s office and departments, have to be contacted to find the best way to distribute, collect and evaluate the logbooks.

Implement an evaluation cycle to optimize logbook-location-fit

Busemann et al. ( 2012 ) suggest conducting a structured evaluation of the logbooks used in clinical training. Analysis of the logbooks should be used to improve the curriculum (Dolmans et al. 1999 ) and to give timely feedback to trainees, faculty and supervisors (Dolmans et al. 1999 ). You should evaluate the contribution of supervising physicians and mentors to the learning process and evaluate the grade and quality of supervision (Watters et al. 2006 ).

Inform staff and trainees

Before starting, inform trainees (Dennick 2000 ), for example in central information sessions prior to the final year, at the beginning of the clerkships or at each rotation. Information should contain a formal introduction to logbooks and their content (Dent & Davis 1995 ; Remmen et al. 2000 ), the function of logbooks (Dennick 2000 ) and the recommendation to use every situation as an opportunity for learning (Jolly 1999 ).

By informing the head of department, the chance that logbook training will be fully integrated in the daily routine, increases. Then explain logbooks and their purpose in team meetings to inform concerned staff, e.g. physicians and nurses. Inform supervising physicians and mentors when trainees start their first placement in clinical settings: trainees don’t yet know how to learn in clinical settings.

Train supervising physicians and mentors

Best practice examples from our workshop as well as published experiences (Schmidt & Hahn 2009 ; Busemann et al. 2012 ) see frequent training of all stakeholders using logbooks in clinical training as essential. Schmidt et al. ( 2010 ) showed that trained mentors give a more intense support to students without needing more time. Best practice reported in our workshop was to provide short, precise, frequently repeated training to supervising physicians and mentors on how to use logbooks in clinical training and to provide tips for teaching on the run, e.g. videos, trainings, brochures as well as information about structure, content and aim of the logbook. The training should also be a place for exchanging personal experiences with the logbook training.

In contrast to portfolios, which focus on students’ documentation and self-reflection of their learning activities, logbooks set clear learning objectives and help to structure the learning process in clinical settings and to ease communication between trainee and clinical teacher. To implement logbooks in clinical training successfully, logbooks have to be an integrated part of the curriculum and the daily routine on the ward. Continuous measures of quality management are necessary. Then logbooks are a valuable tool for training in clinical settings, especially when multiple sites are involved.

Acknowledgments

We want to thank all the participants of the workshop ‘Implementation of logbooks in clinical training’ for sharing their experience with us and we want to thank Jill Thistlethwaite for proof-reading and valuable comments. We want to thank Kathrin Nühse for her valuable advice to focus information.

Declaration of interest: The authors report no conflicts of interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing of the article.

Notes on contributors

KATRIN SCHÜTTPELZ-BRAUNS, DR. SC, holds a master’s degree in psychology and is head of the team Educational Research. Her team focusses on competency-based teaching, learning and assessing in the final year.

ELISABETH NARCISS, DR. MED., is physician and coordinator of final year education, Competence Centre of the Final Year Baden-Württemberg, Medical Faculty Mannheim, University Heidelberg; editor of the basic logbook surgery and internal medicine for Germany.

CLAUDIA SCHNEYINCK, DR. MED., is a general practitioner and associate in the section of general medicine at Medical Faculty Freiburg. She is involved in mentoring students and in the process of logbook improvement.

KLAUS BÖHME, DR. MED., MME, is a general practitioner and senior lecturer in the section of general medicine. He has many years of experience in mentoring students in the final year and implementing logbooks in clinical training.

PETER BRÜSTLE holds a Master’s in Sociology and is a research associate at the Center of Competence for the Evaluation of Teaching in Medicine, Baden-Württemberg, at the Medical Faculty of Freiburg University.

ULRIKE MAU-HOLZMANN, DR. MED., is a physician, specialized in Human Genetics, head of the Cytogenetics Laboratory, and lecturer for Human Genetics at Tubingen University.

MARIA LAMMERDING-KOEPPEL, DR. MED., MME, is Director of the Competence Centre for University Teaching in Medicine Baden-Württemberg at the Faculty of Medicine of Tubingen University. She is responsible for Clinical Teacher Training.

UDO OBERTACKE, PROF. DR. MED., is surgeon and Director of the Competence Centre of the Final Year Baden-Württemberg.

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How To Make A Science Fair Logbook

Table of Contents:

How to Write a Logbook for a Science Project . In industrial and academic research settings, laboratory notebooks constitute legal documents; they are official records of who accomplished what and when it was accomplished. Just as important, a well-kept logbook prevents a scientist from needlessly reproducing experiments and, in the process, wasting the scientist’s time and his employer’s materials and resources. Keeping a laboratory notebook or logbook is one of the most critical skills for young scientists to learn and is an integral part of a scientist’s training. Obtain a suitable notebook to serve as the logbook. Ideally, it should feature a sewn binding (not loose leaf, where pages can be removed and inserted). Using a permanent ink pen, number the pages in the top right corner. Write in the logbook using permanent pen only, and do not use correction fluid. Any time a mistake is made, draw a single line through the error and then continue as though the error never happened. Do not attempt to black out the error. This makes a mess of the notebook and may cause someone else examining the notebook to wonder if the experimenter was attempting to hide information.

How to Do a Science Fair Project Logbook

• Things You’ll Need

Record data properly by using a spiral-bound notebook, a pen and writing down all the details someone would need to replicate your project. All materials, data, experimental conditions and construction of apparatus and experiment must be recorded. Log dates, times, thoughts and observations of both the qualitative and quantitative variety. Write legibly but do not rewrite your logbook before your science fair competition. Include your logbook with your project display board, and keep your journal for the next school year in case you decide to continue your experiment. Purchase your logbook before you do anything with your experiment. Remember to always write in pen, as pencil will smudge. Leave the first page blank so you can create a later. Number each subsequent page in your logbook. Start by logging your brainstorming sessions. Write the date at the top of the page and begin writing in complete sentences what ideas you have and what your hopes are for your experiment.

Video advice: What is Science Project Data Logbook? Why is it important?

Module 2 – Week 2

How do you write a logbook for a science fair project?

Project log books are used to record your daily activity from the very first thing you do in starting the project (an introduction statement what your project is all about), to the completion of the effort (including the final results, did your project meets the core objectives, etc. )

Write the date at the top of the page and begin writing in complete sentences what ideas you have and what your hopes are for your experiment. End your first entry with how you made your decision and what your experiment will be. Use your logbook to next identify your hypothesis and independent and dependent variables. Make sure to write a statement of your problem and your hypothesis. Carefully hand-write or type (i. e. word doc and print out) your logbook. Identify any mistakes by drawing lines drawn through them BUT not erasing them. Include the results of your trials, if you are doing an experiment. Beside above, what is an experiment log? It is a record of your experiment (like a journal) that is kept in a composition notebook. A composition notebook does not have pages that can be torn out. In this manner, what is in a logbook for a science fair project? Every science fair project must include a logbook, also sometimes called a research notebook, which is a complete, permanent record of how you did your experiment/research project; it shows what you did and thought every step along the way.

Documenting Your Work (a.k.a. Science Fair Logbook) – Science Club at Coppell MS West.

science fair participant. The logbook is:the core of the projecta detailed account of EVERY phase of your project from brainstorming about topics, collecting data, and drawing conclusionsproof that certain activities occurred and documents when they happenedsubject to scrutiny by your teachers, judges, scientific community and are even acceptable evidence in a court of lawThis.

Science Fair Logbook Worksheets & Teaching Resources

Browse science fair logbook resources on Teachers Pay Teachers, a marketplace trusted by millions of teachers for original educational resources.

It might be a large project, but science fair doesn’t need to be a daunting task! Need to know the “why” of Science Fair, and also the “how”? In detail, I break down each step of the teaching process and provide you with the materials you’ll need to get your students through. They’ll finish with If your school does science fair projects that the little ones can participate in then this document is just for you. Your kindergarten, first, or second graders will love this format because of the handwriting lines and cute font. It is great for the younger students because they can write on handwEasy to follow, step-by-step, Science Fair Notebook or Log Book. Great way to walk students through the steps of a Science Fair Project. Each step has its own page with instructions. Students can easily use this printable notebook to complete a project on their own!

Video advice: How do I set up my science fair project logbook? Science Fair Friday #3

How do I set up my logbook for Science Fair? This video shows you how!

Science Fair Log Book How to…. – The book itself & how to write in it 1 per group New, bound composition book WRITE IN PEN! NUMBER ALL PAGES DATE ALL ENTRIES NO WRITING ON THE BACK OF PAGES! NO WHITE OUT! If you make a mistake writing, cross out with single line. This is a place where your thoughts and actual data go, it does not have to be perfectly neat.

After the experiment: ConclusionsLog book should be a rough draft of your formal conclusion Everyone in the group should have input! Discussion of hypothesis Recap of results compared to expected results Appropriate calculation of variation between trails Sources of error Significance & usefulness of results What could be done to improve experiment (besides being more careful or more trials)

Science Fair Project: Log Book

Keep a Project Journal–A Log Book The first step in starting a science fair project is to create a science journal, which is a written record showing all your work from start to the finish. Take pictures during each step of the project. A science fair project is for learning more about science and you (…)

2. Planning schedule. This can be a list of all the project steps, including organizing the journal and the dates when you plan to have them completed. It should also include the date the project is due. When planning your schedule, be sure your starting date gives you enough time to be finished before the due date. The calendar might include the following steps and deadlines:

The first step in starting a science fair project is to create a science journal, which is a written record showing all your work from start to the finish. Take pictures during each step of the project. A science fair project is for learning more about science and you learn more if you enjoy your work. So in addition to the photographs that can be used on your display to show your scientific work, you might add some fun photographs to your journal. Photographs of all helpers will make it easy for you to remember who assisted you so you can acknowledge them in your report.

St. Louis Science Fair (STEAMFest) / Logbook Tips – Helpful Logbook TipsAll projects will be submitted electronically.No display boards will be accepted.Scan your logbook pages and upload as a pdf, ORIf you have typed it, upload the word document, ORYou can take pictures of the pages, email to yourself, save to your desktop and drag and drop into a word document. Then upload the word document.Include the pre-approved Research Plan you completed as part of your logbook.Include the Safety Form signed by both student and parent as part of your logbook.Be sure to keep a detailed, day-by-day record of your work on your project. Your logbook upload should not exceed ten pages. The logbook combined with your PowerPoint project cannot exceed 20 pages.SPECIAL NOTE: Keynote and Pages will not be accepted. This is due to the Academy of Science St. Louis Science Fair accepting only Word and PowerPoint or PDF’s. Click here if you need how-to instructions to convert Pages into Word and Keynote into PowerPoint.If you have photographs in your logbook or on your display, it is necessary that any individuals cannot be identified. Students often take photographs of just their hands performing the work, in order to ensure that no faces are visible. Students may also opt to put a round sticker or label over the face in a photo to block the identity.YOU MUST: Include the pre-approved Research Plan with your logbook. It may be scanned, or you may take a picture of your signed Research Plan and upload with your logbook.Include the parent-signed Safety Form in your logbook. It may be scanned, or you may take a picture of your signed Safety Form and upload with your logbook.A QUALITY LOGBOOK:Make sure to write a statement of your problem and your hypothesis.Carefully hand write or type (i.e., Word document or scan and upload). Identify any mistakes by drawing lines through them, BUT NOT ERASING THEM. In this way, the reader can see where you changed your mind, or made a new discovery. If typing, type in a description of the differences (changes or new discoveries).Include the results of your trials if you are doing an experiment. Be detailed! Include your thoughts and observations as your research continues.Include explanations of what you believe your results mean or how you interpreted them.Include information that you found at the library, on the internet, or from magazines, etc., that relate to your research. Include the titles, authors, date of publication, and pages you read or gathered information from.Review the Kirkwood scoring rubric. Make sure that you have all the components for a blue-ribbon projectQUALIFIERS FOR Academy of Science St. Louis Science Fair:We will provide students eligible for advancement to Queeny with information to register online with the Academy of Science St. Louis Science Fair. Their website will provide you with complete details for participating in their event.

Carefully hand write or type (i. e., Word document or scan and upload). Identify any mistakes by drawing lines through them, BUT NOT ERASING THEM. In this way, the reader can see where you changed your mind, or made a new discovery. If typing, type in a description of the differences (changes or new discoveries).

Video advice: Calgary Youth Science Fair: How to Write a Logbook

Instructional video on how to properly keep a logbook for the Calgary Youth Science Fair

How do you write a scientific logbook?

if applicable make an entry every time you work on your project date each entry make your notes in point form organize your logbook into sections such as: schedule, daily notes and ideas, background research, contacts and references, experimental procedure/method, data collection sheets, observations/results in tables ...

What makes a good science project logbook?

Log entries should include your brainstorming, calculations, library/internet searches, phone calls, interviews , meetings with mentors or advisors, notes from tours of laboratories, research facilities and other related activities. Remember that it's documentation of your work.

How do I make a logbook?

Here are some tricks that I have found handy over the years from learning the hard way!

• Take Time to Write Your Log. ...
• Use a Rough Book. ...
• Have One Logbook Per Project. ...
• Keep a Summary List. ...
• Computer Filing. ...
• Be Consistent. ...
• Write a Conclusion.

How do you write a logbook for a research paper?

Make sure your logbook has numbered pages. Skip the first page or two to use for a . Date every page, and record the time of the day for each important entry. Always write directly into your log ; NEVER work on loose scraps of paper, and then copy things into the book.

What should a logbook contain?

It contains all the essential information about your car , such as the name and address of the registered keeper, the date it was first registered, number of previous registered keepers, the car's Make and Model, colour and engine size.

Related Articles:

• What Is A Logbook For Science Project
• How To Do Results For Science Fair
• Where Can I Buy A Science Fair Board
• What Can I Do For A Science Fair Project
• What Is The Problem In Science Fair
• A Science Fair Project That Is Already Done

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How to Write a Research Report Log

How to Write a Dissertation Summary

Writing a research report log involves gathering and exploring research ideas. You enter how you develop your research topic. Information is entered chronologically regarding your research activities and includes the decisions you make along the way, as well as how the new information changes your perception and opinions regarding the subject you are researching. A log helps you keep track of the exploration of the subject of your research.

Type your research log entries into your personal computer. In today's world where personal computers have become so ubiquitous, you will save a lot of time by researching and typing notes directly into your computer. Make sure your computer is reliable so you do not lose your research data. Remember that one of the benefits of log reporting is that it enables you to learn organizational skills.

Pick a topic for your research paper. Start your log by entering information on how you weighed various research ideas. Enter into your log what topics you evaluated and how you ended up with the choice you made. If you sought assistance from a professor or your classmates, cite that in your log notes. Writing a research log is a discovery process, so make sure you include everything that intrigues you as you explore your subject.

Do not forget to enter research information such as library sources, online resources and interviews with classmates or experts. Make sure your notes are clear and written chronologically. This is crucial because the notes will form the basis of the annotated bibliography of your research paper. Make writing notes into your journal a daily routine to avoid procrastination.

Enter dates you used for each source, citing information and all the data that you consider relevant to your research. For instance, you could indicate you went to the Library of Congress on January 11, 2011, and found an article on how political vitriol endangers the lives of elected officials, if you are trying to explore the increasing divide between Americans on the right and left of the political spectrum. Write why the contents of the article are relevant to your research. Does the article expand your research web? Indicate whether you agree with the assertion of the article.

Cite the author and publication in which the article was printed. Take notes extensively to give you enough material to work with when writing your research and producing your annotated bibliography. You will need to cite works you gleaned your research data from when you finally write your paper. Works cited and annotated notes are similar in their functions. They appear at the end of your research paper on a separate page and list all the sources in your paper in alphabetical order. Take detailed notes during research to make writing your annotated bibliography easier.

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Gilbert Manda has written financial news since 2000. He holds a professional diploma from the London School of Journalism, a Bachelor of Science in global business and public policy from the University of Maryland and a Master of Arts in international journalism from City University London.

13.4 Annotated Student Sample: Research Log

Learning outcomes.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Demonstrate the ability to inquire, learn, think critically, and communicate when reading in varying rhetorical and cultural contexts.
• Identify and analyze relationships between ideas, patterns of organization, and interplay between verbal and nonverbal elements in written texts.
• Practice and apply strategies such as interpretation, synthesis, response, and critique to compose texts that integrate the writer’s ideas with those from appropriate sources.

Introduction

Lily Tran created this log entry during the research process for an argumentative research paper assigned in her first-year composition class, as shown in this Annotated Student Sample .

Living by Their Own Words

Planning to write.

public domain text Freewrite: I found this photograph in an article I was reading about food insecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic. I copied and pasted it here as inspiration for my argumentative research paper. end public domain text

annotated text Lily Tran includes a visual in the freewrite section of her research log. The visual may or may not appear in the final paper, but here, it serves to stimulate her writing and thinking about her topic and possibly connect to other information she finds. end annotated text

public domain text For a sustainable future, food production and processing have to change. So does global distribution. end public domain text

annotated text Tran begins to establish problem-and-solution reasoning, recognizing that there are different stages to food production and that all will be affected by any proposed solution. end annotated text

public domain text The necessary changes will affect nearly all aspects of life, including world hunger, health and welfare, use of land resources, habitats, water, energy use and production, greenhouse gas emissions and climate change, and economics, as well as cultural and social values. end public domain text

annotated text Tran also employs cause-and-effect reasoning in beginning to think about the effects of any proposed change. end annotated text

public domain text These needed changes may not be popular, but people will have to accept them. end public domain text

annotated text She recognizes potential counterarguments to address if the paper is to be persuasive. end annotated text

Discussion Questions

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VanCleave's Science Fun

Your Guide to Science Projects, Fun Experiments, and Science Research

Science Fair Project: Log Book

By Janice VanCleave

The first step in starting a science fair project is to create a science journal, which is a written record showing all your work from start to the finish. Take pictures during each step of the project. A science fair project is for learning more about science and you learn more if you enjoy your work. So in addition to the photographs that can be used on your display to show your scientific work, you might add some fun photographs to your journal. Photographs of all helpers will make it easy for you to remember who assisted you so you can acknowledge them in your report.

Tips for Construction a Log Book 1. Use a binder so that more pages can be added or that the pages can be rearranged. 2. Use labeled tabs to organize and separate the different sections. (Suggestions for sections are below). 3.Date all entries and organize in order by date. 4.Include all research information. 5. Include all project experimental observations in order by date, and include time if appropriate. 6. Record your thoughts and questions during the entire study. Remember that this is your science diary. 7. Make the journal as neat, organized, and user-friendly as possible. But don’t rewrite any of the entries on a new page to make them look neater. If you do this, you might accidentally add or delete information. If you make a mistake, mark through it. Stains on the pages don’t matter. 8. Number each page after completing the journal. 9. Place a title page in the front of the journal. Check the fair rules about the information that can be included. 10. Prepare a table of contents listing the page number of each section. Sections for your Log Book: 1. Project rules and regulations. This section contains all the printed information related to the project, including rules and deadlines for each step of the project. 2. Planning schedule. This can be a list of all the project steps, including organizing the journal and the dates when you plan to have them completed. It should also include the date the project is due. When planning your schedule, be sure your starting date gives you enough time to be finished before the due date. The calendar might include the following steps and deadlines:

Steps Deadline Date

1. Set up journal 2. Project topic selected 3. Project research completed 4. Project problem/question decided 5. Project Hypothesis stated 6. Project experiment designed 7. Project experiment completed and data recorded 8. Data Analyzed and Conclusion written 9. Project report completed 10. Project display completed 11. Project due

The remaining sections in the journal are steps in the order needed to design and develop your own project.

1. Topic . This section should include the categories and topics you are interested in. You might make a list of these, then narrow down the topic list to one specific topic. Include information about all the resources you used-magazines, books, online sources, etc. 2. Project research. This is research to help you understand the project topic. It will be helpful in expressing the project problem, proposing your hypothesis, and designing your project experiment. Include information about all the resources that you used, magazines, books, and so on. This information will be needed for the bibliography in your project report. 3.Project question Record all your ideas. Include all your revisions and the final Question Stated. 4. Project hypothesis Record all your hypothesis ideas with final Hypothesis stated. 5. Project experiment. This experiment is to answer the project question and test your hypothesis. Record the materials used as well as the procedure steps. Do record all changes. 6. Project data. This section includes all the data collected from experimental observations. It is important to date your entries. Include a time if it is needed. This information can be recorded in tables, diagrams, graphs, written descriptions, etc. It is very important to record detailed descriptions of your observations. 7. Data Analysis/Conclusion. This is your analysis of the experimental data. This means that you study the data graphs and charts and determine what what they mean. Use the data to answer the project question. Determine if the data supports your hypothesis. Remember that your data does not necessarily prove or disprove your hypothesis. Instead, it either does or doesn’t support your hypothesis. This section should contain all your ideas for the completed conclusion as well as your final copy. 8. Project Report. Include all your ideas for developing the report as well as well as your final copy. 9. Project Display . Keep all written plans and drawings about the display in this section. You may wish to include a series of pictures showing the development of the display. 10. Judging. Written copies of any oral presentations should be kept in this section. Also include information about rules for presentations, such as length of time, as well as information about how the projects will be judged.

Send comments and suggestions to ASK JANICE

RETURN TO SCIENCE FAIR PROJECT TEACHING TIPS

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How to Write a Logbook for a Science Project

Jack brubaker.

In industrial and academic research settings, laboratory notebooks constitute legal documents; they are official records of who accomplished what and when it was accomplished. Just as important, a well-kept logbook prevents a scientist from needlessly reproducing experiments and, in the process, wasting the scientist’s time and his employer’s materials and resources. Keeping a laboratory notebook or logbook is one of the most critical skills for young scientists to learn and is an integral part of a scientist's training.

Obtain a suitable notebook to serve as the logbook. Ideally, it should feature a sewn binding (not loose leaf, where pages can be removed and inserted). Using a permanent ink pen, number the pages in the top right corner.

Write in the logbook using permanent pen only, and do not use correction fluid. Any time a mistake is made, draw a single line through the error and then continue as though the error never happened. Do not attempt to black out the error. This makes a mess of the notebook and may cause someone else examining the notebook to wonder if the experimenter was attempting to hide information.

Begin the logbook by recording the date at the top of the page and writing a short description of the experiment to be undertaken, including the objective. That is, address why the experiment is being conducted and what information the experimenter hopes to obtain at the experiment’s conclusion. An example might be, “Determine the amount of dissolved solids in seawater by evaporating a sample to dryness and weighing the residue.”

Record every step undertaken during the course of the experiment immediately after it has been performed. As such, this information should be recorded in the past tense. Do not feel compelled to write in the first person (do not use the word “I” as the subject of sentences). An example would be, “Weighed an empty 250-mL beaker and then placed 50 mL of seawater in the beaker.” The guiding principle is to provide sufficient detail such that someone else could reproduce the experiment and achieve the same results.

Record any and all measured values to the maximum number of digits provided by the equipment. If a balance, for example, indicates a mass of 56.7890 grams, then record all 6 numbers, including the last zero. Numbers can be rounded later during calculations, but numbers that were not recorded cannot be recovered without repeating the experiment in its entirety.

Show all calculations necessary to process the data, even the trivial calculations, where two numbers are simply added or subtracted. This will greatly enhance the speed with which mathematical errors can be tracked down and corrected.

At the experiment's conclusion, write a brief statement concerning your (the experimenter’s) reflections on the results. Were the results reasonable? Were any problems encountered that might have affected the results? If the experiment is to be repeated, what should be done differently next time?

• Traditional ballpoint pens tend to work best for laboratory notebooks. Gel pens and liquid ballpoints are prone to smudging.

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Home > Blog > Tips for Online Students > What is Primary Source vs. Secondary Source in Academic Writing?

Tips for Online Students , Tips for Students

What is Primary Source vs. Secondary Source in Academic Writing?

Published: September 13, 2024

Have you ever wondered why understanding the difference between primary and secondary sources is so important in academic research? These distinctions are crucial for evaluating, interpreting, and using information effectively. Primary sources offer firsthand evidence and original insights, while secondary sources provide analysis and context. 

Knowing how to classify and use these sources helps students and researchers strengthen their arguments and build a solid foundation for their academic writing. By grasping these concepts, you can improve the quality and depth of your research projects.

What is a Primary Source?

A primary source is original, firsthand evidence or an account created during the period being studied. Examples include diaries, letters, photographs, official documents, and artifacts. These sources offer direct insights into past events, perspectives, and experiences, allowing researchers to draw their own conclusions and interpretations. 

Primary sources are invaluable in historical research because they provide authentic, unfiltered information about a specific time or event, offering a unique window into the past that secondary sources can’t replicate.

What is a Secondary Source?

Secondary sources are materials that analyze, interpret, or synthesize information from primary sources. They include books, scholarly articles, documentaries, and reviews created after the event or time period in question. These sources provide valuable context, analysis, and broader perspectives on historical events, often drawing on multiple primary sources to offer a more comprehensive understanding of a topic. 

Secondary sources are essential for building on the foundation of primary evidence, offering interpretations and conclusions that help researchers understand the significance and impact of historical events. They evaluate different viewpoints, critique existing theories, and present a more nuanced understanding of a subject.

What are the Key Differences Between Primary and Secondary Sources?

Understanding the differences between primary and secondary sources is crucial for effective research . Here are some key distinctions:

Primary sources, such as diaries or photographs, originate directly from the time period or event being studied. They are created by people who have firsthand experience of the event. Secondary sources, however, are created later by people who were not directly involved in the events. These include historians or analysts who review and interpret primary data.

Primary sources are contemporaneous, created during the time of the event, providing direct insight into the context. In contrast, secondary sources are retrospective, offering analysis and interpretation of past events after they have occurred, often years or decades later.

Primary sources aim to record or document events as they happen, providing an unfiltered view. Secondary sources focus on analyzing, interpreting, and giving context to those events, aiming to explain and discuss their significance.

Primary sources include original documents like letters, interviews, speeches, and research data. Secondary sources encompass textbooks, scholarly articles, documentaries, and reviews, synthesizing primary data and providing additional commentary.

Objectivity

Primary sources offer firsthand accounts but may contain personal biases, reflecting the perspectives of those directly involved. Secondary sources strive for objectivity but can reflect the author’s interpretation and analysis, potentially introducing new biases based on the author’s perspective.

Level of Detail

Primary sources provide specific, firsthand details and raw data. In contrast, secondary sources offer broader context, synthesis, and analysis of information from multiple primary sources, helping to piece together a more complete picture.

Accessibility

Primary sources may be less accessible due to preservation issues, as they are often rare or fragile. However, many are digitized and available in archives or libraries. Secondary sources are often more widely available in published or digital formats, making them easier to access for researchers. They are usually found in academic journals, books, and databases, readily available for public consumption.

How to Choose Between Primary and Secondary Sources

Choosing between primary and secondary sources depends on several factors, including your research goals, familiarity with the subject, and available resources . Understanding when to use each type of source can significantly enhance the quality and depth of your research.

Consider Your Research Purpose

Align your source selection with your research objectives. Use primary sources if you seek firsthand accounts or raw data. Secondary sources are more appropriate for broader analysis and context.

Assess Your Subject Knowledge

Evaluate your knowledge of the topic. If you’re new to the subject, secondary sources can provide essential background information and context. Primary sources are valuable for more in-depth, original analysis.

Evaluate the Depth Required

Determine the level of detail and specificity needed for your research. Primary sources offer detailed firsthand information, while secondary sources provide analysis and summary that can help synthesize information.

Check Time Constraints

Consider time limitations when selecting sources. Analyzing primary sources can be time-consuming, while secondary sources are often more readily digestible and quicker to review.

Consider the Historical Context

Understand the broader historical context of your research topic. This can help determine whether primary or secondary sources will be more valuable in answering your research questions.

Tips for Checking the Credibility of Primary and Secondary Sources

Evaluating the reliability of your sources is crucial for maintaining the quality of your research. Here are some strategies to assess source credibility :

Investigate the author’s credentials, expertise, and potential biases. Authors with relevant experience and qualifications are more likely to provide reliable information.

Publication Information

Examine the publication date, publisher, and intended audience. This information helps contextualize the source and gauge its relevance and credibility.

Peer Review

For secondary sources, check if the publication has undergone peer review. Peer-reviewed articles are typically more credible as experts in the field have evaluated them.

Citations and References

Check the quality and quantity of citations in secondary sources. A well-cited work that references reputable primary sources indicates thorough research and enhances credibility.

Can a Source be Both Primary and Secondary?

While sources are typically categorized as primary or secondary, some can serve both functions depending on the context and research question. 

For example, a historical analysis written shortly after an event can be a secondary source for that event but a primary source for understanding the perspectives of that time. 

This dual role highlights the importance of context in determining how a source is used in research. Recognizing this can help researchers use sources more effectively, providing a richer understanding of historical events and interpretations.

Start Your Academic Writing with the Right Choice of Sources

Selecting the appropriate sources is a foundational step in academic writing. A balanced mix of primary and secondary sources can enhance your research’s depth , credibility, and originality. Consider your research question, academic discipline, and task requirements when choosing sources. 

Evaluate factors such as accessibility, relevance, and the balance between firsthand accounts and scholarly interpretations. This thoughtful approach to source selection ensures a robust and well-supported argument, making your academic work more persuasive and impactful. University of the People offers resources to help students develop these skills.

How do primary and secondary sources impact academic credibility?

Primary sources provide original data and firsthand accounts, enhancing authenticity. Secondary sources offer analysis and context, which can strengthen the argument when they are well-researched and credible.

How can researchers effectively balance primary and secondary source usage?

Researchers should use primary sources for original insights and secondary sources for context and analysis, ensuring a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

How do primary and secondary sources differ in scientific writing?

In scientific writing, primary sources include original research articles and data, while secondary sources summarize and interpret existing research, like review articles.

What challenges arise when distinguishing between primary and secondary sources?

Challenges include understanding the context and recognizing sources that might serve dual purposes, depending on how they are used in the research.

What’s the importance of using both source types in research?

Using both sources ensures a thorough investigation, combining firsthand evidence with contextual analysis to build a well-rounded argument.

How can students evaluate the reliability of secondary sources?

Students can assess reliability by checking the author’s credentials, publication credibility, peer reviews, and the quality of citations and references used.

In this article

At UoPeople, our blog writers are thinkers, researchers, and experts dedicated to curating articles relevant to our mission: making higher education accessible to everyone. Read More

Why we haven’t evolved better knees – new research

Reader in the Department of Engineering, King's College London

Disclosure statement

Michael Berthaume has received funding from the Royal Society, UKRI (Innovate UK, EPSRC), and various smaller agencies/charities. He is affiliated with UK Young Academy.

King's College London provides funding as a member of The Conversation UK.

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The groans of pain as we get up from the sofa or the sound of crunching cartilage when taking the stairs are all too familiar. Many of us look down at our aching knees and curse them – wondering why they seemingly evolved to hurt so much. But the human knee has a complex evolutionary history. And new research is showing how misunderstood it is.

The knee has undergone major changes to its size and shape, not only to allow early humans to walk upright, but also to differentiate us ( Homo sapiens ) from our extinct genetic relatives, such as Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis (neanderthals).

Natural selection, acting with other evolutionary forces, like random mutation or genetic heritage, probably shaped the knee to help us walk on two legs more efficiently and for longer than our relatives.

Many of the knee problems we face today are new problems our ancestors did not experience. For example, in 2017, research suggested that the sedentary lifestyle of the post-industrial world may have led to a 2.1-fold increase in the rate of knee osteoarthritis, the most common form of arthritis of the knee.

When the researchers studied the remains of hunter gatherers who lived up to 6,000 years ago, they discovered that knee osteoarthritis was probably not a problem at all back then. In the UK today over a third of people over 45 in the UK, have sought treatment for osteoarthritis – primarily for the knee.

Weaker muscles for stabilising and protecting joints and relatively weaker cartilage to cushion the scraping of bones are probably the result of humans moving a lot less than they used to – sitting in an office or running on a treadmill builds less muscle than hunting deer for most of the day in challenging terrain. For us to evolve osteoarthritis-free knees, sedentary people with “good” knees would need to have more children than sedentary people with “bad” knees for many generations.

But it gets more complicated. The knee is an intricate piece of biological machinery that scientists don’t fully understand.

This is particularly the case for sesamoid bones – small bones that are embedded in tendons or ligaments like the kneecap. These bones can be present throughout the mammalian skeleton. This means some mammals may have sesamoid bones when even members of the same species don’t. One such example is the lateral fabella , which is behind the knee and can be found in an average of 36.80% of human knees today.

Despite hundreds of years of research, little is understood about sesamoid evolution, growth, development and why they are present in some species and not others. This is so much so that sesamoids are often missing from the articulated skeletons you see in museums, thrown away with the muscles they are embedded in.

New work from my colleagues and I has shown that two of these often misunderstood bones, the medial and lateral fabellae, which are behind the knee, could have evolved in multiple ways in primates and helped early humans learn to walk upright.

The research was a systematic review of three sesamoid bones in 93 different species of primate, including other hominids and common ancestors to humans.

Our work showed that humans have a distinct form of evolution for these bones that may have begun at the origin of hominoids, a group of primates that include apes and humans.

Scientists think that using the existing fabella bone for a new purpose, something called an exaptation, may have helped early humans go from walking on four limbs to two. Interestingly, this bone is also linked to higher rates of osteoarthritis . People who have it are twice as likely to develop the condition. Evolution is not a simple road to biomechanical efficiency.

This picture gets even more complicated when we realise that, unlike teeth, knees are “plastic”, meaning they shift and change depending on factors like nutrition and usage. Teeth on the other hand (once grown) don’t adapt and simply become damaged. This is why it is so important to exercise as we age – to keep our bones strong.

Knees change and adapt in response to their use, or lack thereof. A global increase in nutrition causing humans to be taller and weigh more is the leading hypothesis as to why fabellae are becoming more common, for example. The presence of the fabella has trebled in the past 100 years or so, with some variation worldwide .

We know that the evolution of the knee in humans hasn’t been straightforward, and instead had branching paths. We also know that we are living in a way that our bodies are poorly adapted to, and lifestyle changes are probably the culprit of knee issues that have become more severe with time. The knee didn’t evolve for the age in which we find ourselves and the bone that may have helped us walk in the first place may be part and parcel of those problems.

So, when your knees buckle on the treadmill or feel sore when you’re sitting down, spare a thought for them because evolution isn’t as easy as it seems.

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