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7 Ways to Improve Your Ethical Decision-Making

• 03 Aug 2023

Effective decision-making is the cornerstone of any thriving business. According to a survey of 760 companies cited in the Harvard Business Review , decision effectiveness and financial results correlated at a 95 percent confidence level across countries, industries, and organization sizes.

Yet, making ethical decisions can be difficult in the workplace and often requires dealing with ambiguous situations.

If you want to become a more effective leader , here’s an overview of why ethical decision-making is important in business and how to be better at it.

Access your free e-book today.

The Importance of Ethical Decision-Making

Any management position involves decision-making .

“Even with formal systems in place, managers have a great deal of discretion in making decisions that affect employees,” says Harvard Business School Professor Nien-hê Hsieh in the online course Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “This is because many of the activities companies need to carry out are too complex to specify in advance.”

This is where ethical decision-making comes in. As a leader, your decisions influence your company’s culture, employees’ motivation and productivity, and business processes’ effectiveness.

It also impacts your organization’s reputation—in terms of how customers, partners, investors, and prospective employees perceive it—and long-term success.

With such a large portion of your company’s performance relying on your guidance, here are seven ways to improve your ethical decision-making.

1. Gain Clarity Around Personal Commitments

You may be familiar with the saying, “Know thyself.” The first step to including ethics in your decision-making process is defining your personal commitments.

To gain clarity around those, Hsieh recommends asking:

• What’s core to my identity? How do I perceive myself?
• What lines or boundaries will I not cross?
• What kind of life do I want to live?
• What type of leader do I want to be?

Once you better understand your core beliefs, values, and ideals, it’s easier to commit to ethical guidelines in the workplace. If you get stuck when making challenging decisions, revisit those questions for guidance.

2. Overcome Biases

A bias is a systematic, often unconscious inclination toward a belief, opinion, perspective, or decision. It influences how you perceive and interpret information, make judgments, and behave.

Bias is often based on:

• Personal experience
• Cultural background
• Social conditioning
• Individual preference

It exists in the workplace as well.

“Most of the time, people try to act fairly, but personal beliefs or attitudes—both conscious and subconscious—affect our ability to do so,” Hsieh says in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability .

There are two types of bias:

• Explicit: A bias you’re aware of, such as ageism.
• Implicit: A bias that operates outside your awareness, such as cultural conditioning.

Whether explicit or implicit, you must overcome bias to make ethical, fair decisions.

Related: How to Overcome Stereotypes in Your Organization

3. Reflect on Past Decisions

The next step is reflecting on previous decisions.

“By understanding different kinds of bias and how they can show themselves in the workplace, we can reflect on past decisions, experiences, and emotions to help identify problem areas,” Hsieh says in the course.

Reflect on your decisions’ processes and the outcomes. Were they favorable? What would you do differently? Did bias affect them?

Through analyzing prior experiences, you can learn lessons that help guide your ethical decision-making.

4. Be Compassionate

Decisions requiring an ethical lens are often difficult, such as terminating an employee.

“Termination decisions are some of the hardest that managers will ever have to make,” Hsieh says in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “These decisions affect real people with whom we often work every day and who are likely to depend on their job for their livelihood.”

Such decisions require a compassionate approach. Try imagining yourself in the other person’s shoes, and think about what you would want to hear. Doing so allows you to approach decision-making with more empathy.

5. Focus on Fairness

Being “fair” in the workplace is often ambiguous, but it’s vital to ethical decision-making.

“Fairness is not only an ethical response to power asymmetries in the work environment,” Hsieh says in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability . “Fairness–and having a successful organizational culture–can benefit the organization economically and legally as well.”

It’s particularly important to consider fairness in the context of your employees. According to Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability , operationalizing fairness in employment relationships requires:

• Legitimate expectations: Expectations stemming from a promise or regular practice that employees can anticipate and rely on.
• Procedural fairness: Concern with whether decisions are made and carried out impartially, consistently, and transparently.
• Distributive fairness: The fair allocation of opportunities, benefits, and burdens based on employees’ efforts or contributions.

Keeping these aspects of fairness in mind can be the difference between a harmonious team and an employment lawsuit. When in doubt, ask yourself: “If I or someone I loved was at the receiving end of this decision, what would I consider ‘fair’?”

6. Take an Individualized Approach

Not every employee is the same. Your relationships with team members, managers, and organizational leaders differ based on factors like context and personality types.

“Given the personal nature of employment relationships, your judgment and actions in these areas will often require adjustment according to each specific situation,” Hsieh explains in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability .

One way to achieve this is by tailoring your decision-making based on employees’ values and beliefs. For example, if a colleague expresses concerns about a project’s environmental impact, explore eco-friendly approaches that align with their values.

Another way you can customize your ethical decision-making is by accommodating employees’ cultural differences. Doing so can foster a more inclusive work environment and boost your team’s performance .

7. Accept Feedback

Ethical decision-making is susceptible to gray areas and often met with dissent, so it’s critical to be approachable and open to feedback .

The benefits of receiving feedback include:

• Learning from mistakes.
• Having more opportunities to exhibit compassion, fairness, and transparency.
• Identifying blind spots you weren’t aware of.
• Bringing your team into the decision-making process.

While such conversations can be uncomfortable, don’t avoid them. Accepting feedback will not only make you a more effective leader but also help your employees gain a voice in the workplace.

Ethical Decision-Making Is a Continuous Learning Process

Ethical decision-making doesn’t come with right or wrong answers—it’s a continuous learning process.

“There often is no right answer, only imperfect solutions to difficult problems,” Hsieh says. “But even without a single ‘right’ answer, making thoughtful, ethical decisions can make a major difference in the lives of your employees and colleagues.”

By taking an online course, such as Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability , you can develop the frameworks and tools to make effective decisions that benefit all aspects of your business.

Ready to improve your ethical decision-making? Enroll in Leadership, Ethics, and Corporate Accountability —one of our online leadership and management courses —and download our free e-book on how to become a more effective leader.

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11 The Basics of Ethical Reasoning

The Basics of Ethical Reasoning

Radford University, Radford University Core Handbook, https://lcubbison.pressbooks.com/

Let’s begin by refreshing our memory on what is meant by “ethics.”

Ethics is the study of the standards of right and wrong that inform us as to how we ought to behave. These standards relate to unwritten rules that are necessary for humans to live amongst each other, such as “don’t hurt others.” We function better as a society when we treat each other well.

Ethics can also refer to the standards themselves. They often pertain to rights, obligations, fairness, responsibilities, and specific virtues like honesty and loyalty.

They are supported by consistent and well-founded reasons; as such, they have universal appeal. It’s never good to have a society that supports hurting others as a general rule; honesty and loyalty are positive attributes.

Can we think of instances when hurting others is condoned (such as in war) and where honesty or loyalty may be misplaced? Of course! That’s one of the reasons why ethics are so complicated.

Next, let’s briefly look at what is not “ethics.”

We need to distinguish ethics from what it is not. It’s easier if you can remember that ethics doesn’t change:

Ethics is not what’s legal.  The law often puts into writing our ethical standards (don’t hurt others=don’t commit homicide) but it also usually reflects our cultural beliefs at the time. For example, hunting is legal in Virginia, but it would be difficult to say that everyone agrees that it is ethical to hunt. Some people will argue that hunting is ethical because it manages the wildlife population, while others will argue that it is never ethical because it creates pain and suffering.

Ethics is not what you feel . In fact, most times our feelings are very egocentric: what’s best for me and my nearest and dearest? But making judgments based on these sentiments could be detrimental to society as a whole,

Ethics is not religion.  Religions may teach ethical standards, and you may personally use religion to guide your beliefs, but people can have ethics without necessarily belonging to a religion. Therefore, ethics and religion are not interchangeable.

Ethics is not a political ideology.  A political party may share your values and offer ethical arguments to supports its policies, but your decisions aren’t automatically ethical, just because you belong to one political party or another. In fact, many, if not most, political debates are built from arguments that claim one aspect of an ethical dilemma is more significant than another.

What does it mean to be ethical?

When we explore what it means to be ethical, we are looking at what is rationally “right” and “wrong.” We need to have such conversations so that we can live with other people in society. Philosophers would also argue that the best way to achieve our fullest potential is by being ethical.

In this course, we are not teaching you what to believe. We are building on the skills you learned in Core 201 to identify, evaluate, create and analyze ethical arguments.

Again, let’s look at the terms “ethical” and “moral”  and examine if they mean the same thing.

For the purposes of this course, the answer is ‘yes’. The terms ethical and moral are often used as synonyms, and we will adopt this convention and use these terms interchangeably. For most purposes this works fine, but some authors and teachers do see a distinction between these ideas. Usually when the terms are distinguished it is because “morals” can connote very culture-specific norms or expectations. Hence “the mores of the Azande” describes the moral norms of that particular tribe or culture, but without expectation that these norms are universally valid. When “ethics” is contrasted with “morals,” the writer is usually discussing certain normative ethical theories that maintain that certain principles, rules, or virtues have universal ethical validity. A slightly more comprehensive answer would describe the difference; say from an ethical relativist positions definition, as hinging on ethical standards being subjected to the scrutiny of reason or rationality as its fundamental method.

What do we mean by “values”?

Frequently when used in discussions of ethics the term values is used to refer to the fundamental ideals that an individual relies on to describe praise-worthy behavior. A person’s values are the bedrock concepts used to determine their ethical decisions. Most generally speaking values represent aspirational goals common within your culture or society. Values such as honesty, benevolence, wisdom, duty, or compassion are universally recognized laudable and desirable features of a well-developed character. But which values are most important may differ from individual to individual, or across cultures. We could refer to the values of the feudal Japanese samurai culture placing the highest emphasis on the concept of personal honor. We could compare and contrast that with the European knightly virtues as a similar yet distinctively different set of cultural values. We could draw on political beliefs to describe the concepts of equality and freedom at the heart of democratic ideals, contrasting them with a constitutional monarchy that perhaps places the highest importance on duty and tradition as its central political ideals

Let’s examine a few examples of ethical issues.

Ethical issues abound in contemporary society. Ethical issues involve questions of the ethical rightness or wrongness of public policy or personal behavior.  Actions or policies that affect other people always have an ethical dimension, but while some people restrict ethical issues to actions that can help or harm others (social ethics) others include personal and self-regarding conduct (personal ethics).

Many of today’s most pressing issues of social ethics are complex and multifaceted and require clear and careful thought. Some of these issues include:

• Should states allow physician-assisted suicide?
• Is the death penalty an ethically acceptable type of punishment?
• Should animals have rights?
• Is society ever justified in regulating so-called victimless crimes like drug use, not wearing a helmet or a seatbelt, etc.?
• What are our responsibilities to future generations?
• Are affluent individuals and countries obligated to try to prevent starvation, malnutrition, and poverty wherever we find them in the world?
• Is there such a thing as a just war?
• How does business ethics relate to corporate responsibility?

To reach careful conclusions, these public policy issues require people to engage in complicated ethical reasoning, but the ethical reasoning involving personal issues can be just as complex and multifaceted:

• What principles do I apply to the way I treat other people?
• What guides my own choices and my own goals in life?
• Should I have the same expectations of others in terms of their behavior and choices as I have of myself?
• Is living ethically compatible or incompatible with what I call living well or happily?

Now you might be asking, “How can I effectively apply critical reasoning to an ethical issue?”

People care quite a bit about ethical issues and often voice varied and even sharply opposed perspectives. So when looking at how we debate ethical issues publicly, it is not surprising to find debate ranging from formal to informal argumentation, and from very carefully constructed arguments with well-qualified conclusions, to very biased positions and quite fallacious forms of persuasion. It’s easy to be dismayed by the discord we find over volatile issues like gun control, immigration policy, and equality in marriage or in the workplace, gender and race equality, abortion and birth control, jobs versus environment, freedom versus security, free speech and censorship, and so on. But it is also easy to go the other direction and be drawn into the often fallacious reasoning we hear all around us.

Critical thinkers want to conduct civil, respectful discourse, and to build bridges in ways that allow progress to be made on difficult issues of common concern. Progress and mutual understanding is not possible when name-calling, inflammatory language, and fallacies are the norm. Some mutual respect, together with the skill of being able to offer a clearly-structured argument for one’s position, undercuts the need to resort to such tactics. So critical thinkers resist trading fallacy for fallacy, and try to introduce common ground that can help resolve disputes by remaining respectful of differences, even about issues personally quite important to them. When we support a thesis (such as a position on one of the above ethical issues) with a clear and well-structured argument, we allow and invite others to engage with us in more constructive fashion. We say essentially, “Here is my thesis and here are my reasons for holding it. If you don’t agree with my claim, then show me what is wrong with my argument, and I will reconsider my view, as any rational person should.”

Another question you may be asking is, “When I debate ethical issues, what is my responsibility to people who are part of the dialogue?”

When we evaluate (analyze) somebody else’s position on an ethical issue, we are not free to simply reject out-of-hand a conclusion we don’t initially agree with. To be reasonable, we must accept the burden of showing where the other person errs in his facts or reasoning. If we cannot show that there are errors in the person’s facts or reasoning, to be reasonable we must reconsider whether we should reject the other person’s conclusion.

By applying the common standards of critical thinking to our reasoning about ethical issues, our arguments will become less emotionally driven and more rational. Our reasoning will become less dependent upon unquestioned beliefs or assumptions that the other people in the conversation may not accept. We become better able to contribute to progressive public debate and conflict resolution through a well-developed ability to articulate a well-reasoned position on an ethical issue.

And, you might be thinking, “What are ethical judgments?”

Ethical judgments are a subclass of value judgments. A value judgment involves an argument as to what is correct, superior, or preferable. In the case of ethics, the value judgment involves making a judgment, claim, or statement about whether an action is morally right or wrong or whether a person’s motives are morally good or bad. Ethical judgments often prescribe as well as evaluate actions, so that to state that someone (or perhaps everyone) ethically “should” or “ought to” do something is also to make an ethical judgment.

And you may be asking yourself, “How can I distinguish ethical judgments from other kinds of value judgments?”

If ethical judgments are a subclass of value judgments, how do we distinguish them?  Ethical judgments typically state that some action is good or bad, or right or wrong, in a specifically ethical sense. It is usually not difficult to distinguish non-ethical judgments of goodness and badness from ethical ones. When someone says “That was a good action, because it was caring,” or “That was bad action, because it was cruel” they are clearly intending goodness or badness in a distinctly ethical sense.

By contrast, non-moral value judgments typically say that something is good (or bad) simply for the kind of thing it is; or that some action is right or wrong, given the practical goal or purpose that one has in mind. “That’s a good car” or “That’s a bad bike” would not be considered to moral judgments about those objects. Goodness and badness here are still value judgments, but value judgments that likely track features like comfort, styling, reliability, safety and mileage ratings, etc.

The use of “should” or “ought to” for non-moral value judgments is also easy to recognize. “You ought to enroll early” or “You made the right decision to go to college” are value-judgments, but no one would say they are ethical judgments. They reflect a concern with wholly practical aims rather than ethical ones and with the best way to attain those practical aims.

Let’s end by looking at what is meant by  the term “ethical arguments.”

Ethical arguments are arguments whose conclusion makes an ethical judgment. Ethical arguments are most typically arguments that try to show a certain policy or behavior to be either ethical or unethical. Suppose you want to argue that “The death penalty is unjust (or just) punishment” for a certain range of violent crimes. Here we have an ethical judgment, and one that with a bit more detail could serve as the thesis of a position paper on the death penalty debate.

An ethical judgment rises above mere opinion and becomes the conclusion of an ethical argument when you support it with ethical reasoning. You must say why you hold the death penalty to be ethically right or wrong, just or unjust. For instance, you might argue that it is unjust because of one or more of the reasons below:

• It is cruel, and cruel actions are wrong.
• Two wrongs don’t make a right.
• It disrespects human life.
• In some states the penalty falls unevenly on members of a racial group.
• The penalty sometimes results in the execution of innocent people.

Of course you could also give reasons to support the view that the death penalty is a just punishment for certain crimes. The point is that whichever side of the debate you take, your ethical argument should develop ethical reasons and principles rather than economic or other practical but non-moral concerns. To argue merely that the death penalty be abolished because that would save us all money is a possible policy-position, but it is essentially an economic argument rather than an ethical argument.

This work ( The Basics of Ethical Reasoning by Radford University, Radford University Core Handbook, https://lcubbison.pressbooks.com/) is free of known copyright restrictions.

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Core Values: How to Lead Ethically and Why It Matters

Understanding your core values and how to incorporate them into your business can improve company culture and accountability.

May 02, 2023

Illustration by: iStock/tolgart

Ethics and values are as much a part of your business as your product, operations, or customers. Stakeholders want to know where you stand on any number of issues, and employees deserve a workplace where they feel safe and respected. So how can you incorporate your ethics into your business? And how do you stay true to them, especially while leading others whose values may be different?

Two Stanford Graduate School of Business faculty members who also teach in Executive Education programs addressed these often challenging issues in a recent book. Ken Shotts, the David S. and Ann M. Barlow Professor of Political Economy, and Neil Malhotra, the Edith M. Cornell Professor of Political Economy, are the authors of “Leading With Values: Strategies for Making Ethical Decisions in Business and Life.” See their tips for testing your ethics to become a more effective leader — and some best practices for making your workplace reflective of your values — below.

Establish Your Core Values

Are you clear about what your ethical standards are? Core values are shaped by an individual’s cultural and religious traditions, personal history, experiences, and expectations. Take time to consider the standards and ethics that are important to you, such as integrity, diligence, compassion, or accountability. Then, give team members time to reflect on theirs as well.

“Importantly,” says Shotts, “don’t assume that everyone in your organization shares your own values.” More likely, there’s a mix of people whose values do and don’t align with yours. Your job isn’t to try to change their values, it’s to foster an environment that allows for differences of opinion, where people feel safe to express themselves and to civilly disagree with others.

Determine If You’re Acting Ethically

There are various methods to help you determine if your behavior is ethical. One of the most common is The New York Times Test, which asks if you would act the same way if you knew the paper of record was reporting on it. But it’s unlikely that your day-to-day activities and decisions are that newsworthy, making this an abstract and ineffective guardrail to keep you on a path that aligns with your ethics.

Quote Would you be comfortable telling your friends and family about your actions? Attribution Neil Malhotra

Malhotra suggests a better way: “Would you be comfortable telling your friends and family about your actions and decisions? Or are you withholding information because it’s inconsistent with your value structure?” The Friends and Family Test is an effective reminder of where your ethical boundaries lie. Establishing a trusted network of people who will give you honest feedback and hold you accountable makes this test even more helpful.

Handling Ethically Challenging Situations

Be proactive. If you plan ahead for situations you may encounter in your business — and think through how you’ll act if they occur — you’re more likely to stick to your values than if you’re reacting spontaneously to circumstances for which you’re not prepared.

If you do find yourself in a situation that doesn’t align with your ethics, Shotts says the best thing you can do is to temporarily remove yourself, both physically and emotionally. That gives you a chance to consider your options and realign yourself with your values before taking action.

Put Ethics to Work

Here are some best practices for making values an integral part of your company:

• Provide time and space for team members, including leaders, to reflect on and write down their values.
• Cultivate an environment of encouragement and respect so that team members feel comfortable sharing their opinions and disagreeing with others.
• Remember the Friends and Family Test. Encourage employees to build networks of colleagues who will help them stay aligned with their values.
• Ask your team to think about the types of situations they might encounter at work and how they plan to react. Role-playing potential scenarios with co-workers may help them prepare for unexpected situations.
• Let employees know that if they find themselves in an unethical situation, physically and emotionally distancing themselves temporarily will help them reestablish their ethical boundaries.

As a leader, it’s important to understand and stay true to your own values. But it’s equally important to understand that every employee has their own values shaped by their unique experiences. Fostering an environment of respect and empathy for these differences, while communicating your own values clearly, allows for greater collaboration and a more productive team.

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Analyzing the basics of ethical thinking for leaders and organizations in society

This chapter will introduce the basic constructs of moral thinking. We will begin by defining the terms morality and ethics.  After creating a working knowledge of the terminology, we will look at the roots of moral decision-making in our society by tracing the factors contributing to the Western societal framework. We will examine the many characteristics, including inherent tensions, that determine individual morality and societal ethics while focusing on the inherent legacy and discussion in that interaction. At the end of this section, different conceptions of the more profound components of moral theory and its interaction in society will be introduced, with constructive and practical outcomes that will help us to determine how best to approach ethical outcomes. This will include suggestions on becoming more aware of moral decision-making and how to avoid potential problems organizations or leaders might face as they consider problems that we must address personally, professionally, and in a societal and/or global sense.

Key Definitions

What is Morality?

The constructs of human conduct and/or values.

What is Ethics?

The study of the constructs that determine what is good and evil in direct connection with moral principles and values

What is Moral Reasoning?

The factors, arguments, and thinking patterns that determine the constructs of human conduct and/or values

Let’s begin with basic definitions of the study of moral philosophy and “good” decision-making.  Morality is the term used to describe the constructs of human conduct and/or values.  At its base, morality is formulated on an understanding of preferred behavior, in both an individual and societal sense, depending on the context.  It is often in the interaction of personal and societal factors that thinkers have contemplated the depth and uniqueness of this study. Though many theorists differ in their interpretation of how morality is derived personally and collectively, experts generally agree that morality is a combination of reason and “sense” that we use or fall back on to determine right from wrong or our expectations of ourselves and others.  Using the writings of Plato in commentary on Socrates, the definition focuses on morality as the determination of “how we ought to live.”  This understanding of morality coincides with our beliefs about the future and how we conceive of how the world, the people, and the factors that determine that reality should come to be and the result we desire.

Ethics is the formal study of the personal and collective definitions of morality. Ethics focuses on how we, individually or collectively, conceive or determine morality. It represents the constant reevaluation and thinking behind the decisions that have led us to these conclusions.

“Ethics” is derived from the Greek term “ethos.” This term was most closely connected to the Greek concept of “proper character or manners.” The definition of ethics, whether used as a discipline or conceptually, is focused on pursuing objective truth to determine better outcomes daily for everyone, regardless of the factors or the results. Inherent in the study of ethics is a crucial understanding of the concept of objectivity.

Moral reasoning is the series of factors, arguments, and thinking patterns that humans use or engage in to determine what the basic values or constructs of proper moral judgments should be. Moral reasoning focuses on why and/or how we achieve the result of a proper way of living life.  Though this is complicated, we all engage in this reasoning daily and throughout our lives, whether we consciously know it or not.

Two questions are at the core of this evaluation:

• What is the best course of thought and action required to improve our awareness of this reasoning?
• How do we determine the best outcome personally and as we interact and build community with others?

These terms are crucial to consider as we work towards the conceptual goal of truth. It includes how to read individuals more carefully and diligently and how we know ourselves.  By paying more close attention to these constructs and studying them in greater depth, a good thinker can understand the factors that determine better decisions and, of course, avoid the prospect of decisions that could be very costly.

Crucial Moral Concepts

What is Virtue?

The concept of moral excellence or proper moral conduct

What are Values?

Characteristics of human thought and action that are intrinsically preferred or held in high esteem

Building on these definitions, we turn our attention to two concepts that are crucial to ethical study.  Virtue is defined as the concept of moral excellence or proper moral conduct.  This term is also applied to a field of ethical study called “virtue ethics.”  “Virtue” philosophical thinkers believe there is a core of attributes central to the human condition that we can determine or “call upon” as preferred attributes of human behavior.  These theories are most widely studied in the framework of Ancient Greek philosophers, including Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, who is perhaps the most famous.  We will look at their views in the future.  Many of these thinkers believe that ethical thinking becomes self-evident as individuals learn more about themselves and their world.

From that wisdom development, concepts of preferred behavior emerge. A good example is courage. Using reason, it becomes clear that being courageous is always more desirable than being uncourageous. Though people can be “courageous” or “uncourageous,” conceptually, courageous behavior is often believed to be more virtuous or an element of proper moral conduct.  In our study, we pay particular attention or think about what determines a better or wiser thinker and what it requires of us.  In Damon Horowitz’s 3-minute talk on teaching philosophy in prison, listen to his assessment of the importance and power of philosophical training and thought as it relates to determining the practical nature of the definition of virtue.  What essential components of this conversation should we consider as we contemplate what it means to pursue ethical thinking?  Those components of wisdom or attributes observed in human experience often coincide with the concepts that thinkers of the ages have determined are central to the “virtue” ethical excellence elements.

The other term essential to the discussion of morality and decision-making is the definition of values.  The baseline definition of the term “values” pertains to human thought and action characteristics that are intrinsically preferred or held in high esteem.  For our purposes, consider the term “values” or “value” as the individual characteristics, like courage, that make up the concept of virtuous or proper moral conduct.  These two terms remind us that ideals or concepts may be present in our daily decision-making.  The key is to identify them, ensure those ideals are central to objective truth and not just what we want, and consciously allow them to guide us in all aspects of our lives.

Basic Constructs of Ethical Study

Descriptive Ethics + Analytical Ethics = Normative Ethics

The determination of values and/or virtues can be seen in the struggle of leaders and organizations over time.  In the Twentieth Century and the Twenty-First Century, unethical decisions have dominated the world, resulting in unethical outcomes.  In the wake of such damaging outcomes, people are more astutely focusing on ethics and ethical practice.  In doing so, they consider greater thoughtful procedures as they scope through risk management, organizational function and productivity, market positioning, and civic responsibility. What has emerged in greater clarity is the understanding that profits and ethical decision-making, at all levels, can be integrated partners if consistent and committed to long-term success is kept at the forefront of individual consciousness.

At the beginning of the study of ethical options, we need to define a framework to understand how to study ethics.  In doing this, it becomes clear that ethics is complicated and not merely a formulation of what is only “wrong” or “right” but a concentrated and in-depth study of the various segments of human thought and behavior.  I term this complexity the equation of ethical study.  There are three components:

• Descriptive ethics is the branch of ethical study that considers ethical analysis in the context of a neutral representation of the perceptions or facts of any ethical situation.  It involves a lengthy and careful attempt to identify the ethical issues and values inherent in the evaluation process.
• Analytical ethics centers on the argument and logic in the ethical opinions and assessments used to determine the ethical issues, values, or outcomes.  This approach builds on descriptive ethics by considering the construct of ethical determination in greater depth.  Analytical ethics considers the ethical outcome based upon other decisions, especially those decisions that are disconnected from others and the impact such decisions or outcomes might have in that consideration.
• Normative ethics approaches the study of ethics with the belief, according to Kitson and Campbell in Case Studies in Business Ethics (2001), of seeking “to develop and defend judgments of right and wrong, good and bad, and virtue and vice, to arrive at an understanding of truth.”  This final evaluation tool process focuses on determining the best possible outcome after solid and productive consideration of descriptive and analytical components.  Normative is usually the stage of the ethical evaluation process that most people are familiar with, as it often leads to a decision or determination of what is “right” or “wrong” for an individual, group, organization, or society.

As May describes in Case Studies in Organizational Communication , these three layers make up the many different conceptualizations inherent in ethical analysis.  All are equally important, but we must consider the ethical layers when considering descriptive and analytical ethical standing to make the best possible decision.

Prominent Ethical Tensions

Foundational vs. Situational Tensions

Individual vs. Community Tensions

Beyond these layers of ethical study, good critical thinkers must be aware of inevitable tensions between individuals crucial to ethical study evaluation.  Such tensions exist in our world and are at the root of ethical dilemmas.

The first tension focuses on the interaction between foundational and situational arguments.

• Foundational ethical arguments are built upon the idea that proper ethical formulation is based upon “universal” constructs of ethical thinking or objective conceptualization. From this standpoint, ethical evaluation is determined by an objective assessment that the individual or organization using this approach deems accurate, regardless of context or situation.
• Situational ethical arguments are formulated on the belief that ethical thinking is a product of consistent change and subjective conceptualizations based upon unique circumstances or each instance in which an ethical evaluation must occur. This presents tension as each perspective can often be at the root of ethical differences and misunderstandings.

The other tension highlights the moral stances of ideologies linked to individualism and collectivism.

• I ndividualistic ideology argues that proper ethical evaluation and determination are inherently formulated on the individual, entity, and responsibility.
• The collective ethical perspective argues the opposite.

Ethical decision-making is best constructed through understanding the soundest course of thought and evaluation through group affiliation and agreement. Thinkers must consider the interplay of the rights and responsibilities of individuals with the rights and responsibilities of communities found in any society or organization (of people).  A better understanding of the framework of ethical interaction allows us to contemplate productive outcomes more deeply for some of our most difficult moral problems. Awareness of these tensions is a start to becoming more productive in arriving at more ethical outcomes and defraying possible misunderstandings around the thoughts and behavior of those involved.

Moral Reasoning and Determination are not only…  A matter of opinion or personal taste.

This essential question is central to the discussion of moral decision-making:  isn’t morality simply a matter of opinion or personal taste?  This question represents a standard assumption on the part of many.  Other people view morality, ethical thinking, moral reasoning, virtue, and value or values, as simply relativistic or subjective. “ Relativistic ” refers to the belief that our understanding of truth (or what we believe in) is based on our evaluation or perspective. It can be argued that truth comes from a subjective conception, and this viewpoint carries great merit as we understand perception, thinking, and uniqueness. It is also true that moral reasoning or morality must probe more deeply than simply a belief or opinion we possess.  Good thinking requires that we investigate, process and evaluate as many components of possible ethical dilemmas and not only the use of our background, quick assessments, or sole emotional reactions to determine better practices or outcomes.

Relativistic statements of individuals must go further than a simple assertion that they might have on a subject; instead, as the philosopher Dr. James Rachels explains in The Elements of Moral Philosophy , we must employ moral reasoning and virtuous decision-making solidly and constructively, building on the reasoning that is supported by the soundness of thought and consistency of action.  This Starburst candy advertisement demonstrates how important it is to determine when an opinion or personal taste should lead us to evaluate the Truth and how we might begin to use reason to help us transcend evaluations that might be problematic or untrue.

Basic Ethical Constructs of the Western World

Though there are many codes of moral conduct and varying traditions of ethical perspective we could study, I have limited the scope of this course to a series of very strong contributors to our Western world to illustrate how ethical theory and conception have come to define our reality.  These factors have become prominent in some ethical determinations in the Western World and the world at large.  As we consider the climate of increasing globalized networks built upon some of these notions, it is increasingly essential to constructively understand and evaluate the roots of such basic conceptions of morality.

The long conversational history becomes apparent in tracing the background of morality and ethical conduct.  We can find those essential modern conceptions linked to the world of the ancient world of the Greeks and Romans.  Our presumptions of good business, proper conduct, and even the truth of reality have been shaped by the writings and beliefs of individuals predating the fourth century BC.  Central to the Greco-Roman world was the philosophical viewpoint that the meaning of life was somehow connected to this idea of creating a “better life” or moving towards a greater sense of “progress.”

This idea is still present in almost every aspect of our world and can be fundamentally seen in Western culture.  This concept of “ betterment ” or “good” living has impacted our decision-making, creating a society that focuses on growth and the belief that there are better ways to approach various subjects and our lives.

One key component of this Greek belief of “betterment” can be traced to their solid ethical notion of the citizenry and civic responsibility.  Citizens have rights given to them by circumstance or situation, but with rights come responsibilities required of those with privilege.  The Romans took this concept further, believing that the true notion of justice was steeped in ethical importance.  They attempted to set up courts and impartial authority figures connected with the Roman authorities who were tasked with helping those in conflict resolve their issues through productive and just outcomes.  The idea was that society only operates ethically when people are treated fairly and problems are solved to diminish conflict.

The second component is the influence of Christian values and virtues on the development of accepted social norms of thought and behavior in the Western world.  Regardless of one’s religious affiliation, the Western world has been developed using the beliefs Christian principles passed down since the Middle Ages by the Roman Catholic Church.

During this time, many social norms espoused by the Christian establishment became the backbone of European society. They laid the foundation for individual and organizational behavior through law or cultural expectations.  Many of those expectations often associated with Hebraic belief expectations, such as the Ten Commandments, were combined with the teachings of Jesus Christ found in the New Testament.  Those expectations became encapsulated in Christian creeds and lists of behavioral expectations, such as The Seven Deadly Sins , decided by Christian leaders through council decisions.  These decisions were often instituted as laws that kingdoms adopted.  Many concepts of societal values, such as true justice and characteristics of personal values, were taught, reinforced, and passed down from generation to generation, both societally and individually.  In addition, these values or moral expectations were also taught and reinforced in direct conjunction with the Church’s practices.

Beyond the first earlier Western influences we have discussed, there have also been economic ideologies that have come to shape moral thinking and evaluation.  Milton Friedman, one of the most prominent economists of the twentieth century, argued, in a famous 1970 essay termed Friedman’s Thesis , as well as his early text Capitalism and Freedom , “the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits” arguing that the role of a business should be to maximize profits and not to be concerned with elements of moral responsibility or participate in determining moral “rights” and “wrongs’ within society.  According to his evaluation, institutions, especially for-profit organizations, should only concern themselves with economic decisions that would increase the profitability of shareholders. In this way, morality and market interaction would dictate proper moral decision-making.

Organizations’ freedom to pursue their best interest, namely profit, should determine organizational attitude and behavior as long as they obey the law.  This belief functioned under the assumption that moral assessments should be reserved for the citizens who would make those decisions by purchasing the products or services presented and through the regulations created by legislators who represented those citizens.  This approach profoundly influenced how Western society determined the best moral course of action, arguing that the market would be the best assessor of moral attitude and behavior.

Another layer of this debate centers itself on the tension between philanthropy and charity.  Philanthropy, the offering of financial or resource help to an individual, organization, or society in need with some benefit for the giving organization or individual, has often been interpreted by many as a productive way to invest in a beneficial, moral manner to address critical ethical problems.  It has been argued as the best option for addressing moral and social needs.  In doing so, though, the belief is that what is beneficial for those who need the help should be linked to the benefit of the participating organization.  Charity, in contrast, is centered on the idea that benefits of any kind should be offered without the mutual requirement of exchange.  The debate over what is proper and productive “help” and the morality of how to best offer it as we consider economic results have been at the crux of moral evaluation in the Western world and linked to the debate around Friedman’s Thesis.  Some of that debate has been influenced by moral presumptions connected with the value of work and individual responsibility.  This also includes the assumption that profitability is most important and should influence how we evaluate the most moral course of action.

The moral complexity of individual and society in Western society…Pluralism, dualism, and monism

As alluded to in the last section, the complexity of the interaction of individual and societal beliefs is critical in understanding the context of Western ethical thinking.  Western society has consistently attempted, through the institution of such documents as the Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights 1688, and The Constitution of the United States, to define the relationship more clearly between what is individually acceptable behavior and what is collectively accepted as permissible

Rousseau, the famous French-Swiss philosopher of the eighteenth century, referred to this as the concept of a social contract.  At the heart of this interaction is a societal moral value called justice.  Perhaps one of the most controversial legal thinkers of the twentieth century, John Rawls, a prominent professor of law and philosophy at Harvard, asserts that we must know the role of “institutions” or groups of people in moral decision-making.  At the root of the interaction of personal, institutional (which is best defined as any group of individuals), and society at large is the philosophical conception of whether Truth, defined objectively, can be found in a dualistic thinking framework or a monistic thinking conceptualization.

Dualism is the belief that two concepts, ideals, or factors determine truth by their interplay or lack therein, while monism refers to the belief that truth reflects one concept, ideal, or factor.  For a thinker, it is imperative to determine whether problem-solving considers a more dualistic, or perhaps even pluralistic, or multiple-factor approach or a more monistic framework.  As we struggle with proper judgments, one will inevitably conclude that proper conduct and decision-making, as well as good critical thinking, must incorporate a solid and reliable set of rules of conduct or expectations that is inclusive of as many approaches or perspectives as possible while considering the need to determine ethical goals or ideals to progress towards.

Dilemmas at the Heart of Ethical Thinking…

• Justice vs. mercy
• Truth vs. Loyalty
• Individual vs. community
• Short-term goals vs. long-term goals

To further our understanding of ethical thinking, it is useful to dissect moral problems within the context of “value pairings.”  To highlight some of the more critical Western societal values, Rushworth Kidder breaks ethical issues into four major categories that should help us assess moral decision-making.  In How Good People Make Tough Choices:  Resolving the Dilemmas of Ethical Living (1995), he argues that all complex ethical dilemmas have, at their core, many of the following series of troubling pairings that make it challenging to determine the best moral outcome.

Justice versus mercy forces us to consider how we should uphold proper expectations for attitudes and behaviors, emphasizing that everyone should receive what they deserve within society.  This includes the belief that taking responsibility for oneself is important while balancing the belief that it is valuable to consider when to offer leniency to those who might not deserve it or someone who hasn’t taken responsibility.

Truth (objective) versus loyalty presents the dilemma of determining when we or society should adhere to the truth regardless of loyalty and when loyalty to ourselves, others, or institutions might be the most moral course of action.

The construct of individual versus community tension compels us to consider the varied interests of the individual versus the needs and/or desires of a greater community.  This moral dilemma can be present in many different facets of society.

Finally, Kidder iterates that the final dilemma we should consider is the clash between short-term and long-term goal-setting .  There are often compelling cases for when we should choose short-term over long-term goals or vice versa, but knowing when to make the right decision in the right situation is often difficult to determine.  Considering these four dilemmas can not be understated when we evaluate the importance of better critical thinking with the result of more ethical outcomes.  Listen to Patrick Awuah’s discussion (17 minutes) as he uses his experience to emphasize the importance of being a “thinking, moral” leader and how one should look for opportunities to encourage those traits in others.  Making ethical decisions is not easy, but it is necessary.

The Origin of Ethical Determination

Differing perspectives on moral determination have been considered in Western society for centuries.  As a result, many different viewpoints have emerged over time.  It is essential to contemplate the thoughts of some of the greatest thinkers to analyze what is truly at the core of proper moral reasoning and understand what many people today might conclude.

David Hume , a Scottish philosopher of the Eighteenth Century, espoused the viewpoint that people determine what is “right” or “wrong” through experiences filtered by their senses.  Hume’s famous statement that humans are nothing more than “a bundle of perceptions” claims that the core of who we are as individuals is directly tied to our perceptions or how we interpret the world.  Though perception, as a process, may be considered universal in the sense that we, as humans, all participate in it or employ the phenomena, he is quick to point out that each one of us is diverse in those experiences.

Karl Marx, the famous Mid-Nineteenth Century philosopher, is known primarily for his work The Communist Manifesto. Marx wrote that the root of ethical thinking is humans’ economic constraints. The struggle over material goods between those who have and those who have not and how that relationship is worked in society outlines and determines ethical thinking or morality.

The last and most controversial is the work of psychologist and psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud .  Freud believed that ethical thinking is directly tied to our subconscious and found that we find the real motivations for ethical decision-making in the interaction of the id, ego, and superego.  Therefore, morality is based upon our “hidden desires” or “what we really want” when played out against other influences such as societal expectations and/or the interests of others; this reflects the central feature of who we are as individuals but also the weighs that interest against the interest of others.

By contemplating the potential motivating factors that determine ethical thinking in people, we become much more careful in thinking through matters pertaining to decision-making.  In Western society, many thinkers have come to radically different perspectives on what determines ethical thought and action.

Questions at the Root of the Ethical Decision-Making Process

At the root of ethical decision-making are four initial questions that must be contemplated to find answers.

• What does it mean to be good?
• What makes a life a good life?
• What characteristics make up a good human?
• What duties do we have to each other and ourselves?

Critical thinkers may use the following suggestions when confronted with questions.

First, there are no easy answers; attaining satisfactory answers is ongoing.  These questions must be revisited to gain insight and enhance growth over time.

Second, strong and solid reasons require significant thought and the ability to continually question notions that might even be held dear.  Process and result must both be considered. Last, these questions require us to keep ourselves in check by considering the interest of others.

Tough Outcomes May Emerge

Several potential outcomes emerge when important ethical questions are asked.  These questions can cause people to come to certain conclusions that may be unnerving. Additionally, the answers that people often struggle with produce actions and outcomes that present obstacles to moving along with better ethical thinking and problem-solving.

The first problem is the issue of blame .  At the root of blame is the shared realization that change is needed.  Change is often scary and threatening.  As individuals think about ethical issues, they are often confronted by their conscience or reason, prompting them to feel troubled by their thoughts or behaviors.  When integrated with the need to enact some form of change, discomfort can cause people to feel unmotivated or agitated.  It is probably safe to say that most humans do not like change, and this factor alone can cause uncomfortable situations or outcomes, but when we add the topic of moral assessment, there is added pressure and stress.  This video of a dog  illustrates the humorous interaction between the dog “Denver” and his master.  This is a microcosm (in a more humorous manner) of what people might experience.

The second potential problem centers on the issue of obligation or duty.   Ethical issues naturally imply that the change required might dictate a strong sense of obligation that may cause people not to think and act unfairly. Think of a person who has a renewed view of an issue or problem and throws themselves completely into that new approach without realizing that that renewed perspective may not solve ethical issues.  The complexities of obligation can create a crisis as people, in their new understanding, might be torn between loyalties to multiple viewpoints or viewpoints—thus causing even more potential dismay.

The third factor to consider is the issue of the emotional investment of those involved.  Ethical issues often carry with them inherent strong viewpoints and feelings that can surface and may cause individuals to avoid an accurate understanding of the outcomes present.  This emotional investment may lead to false admiration for those involved in the decision or leaders who enact what is perceived to be the better moral decision or process.  This can lead to an inaccurate result or view of the situation.

Last might be the ethical dilemma of not knowing the result that an ethical decision might produce .  How does one truly know that they are correct, or what we have come to think is the proper outcome will indeed yield that result?  The prospect of this can be frightening for many people.  The more we know how people react in circumstances linked to ethical tensions and outcomes, the better we identify these tendencies in ourselves and others and work to allay those fears.  This is perhaps one of the most important factors to consider and why an ethics-based education is essential.

Awuah, P. (2007, June). How to educate leaders? Liberal arts. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/patrick_awuah_on_educating_leaders

Denver Official Guilty Dog Video. (2011, March 08). Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=B8ISzf2pryI

Horowitz, D. (2011, March). Philosophy in prison. Retrieved from https://www.ted.com/talks/damon_horowitz_philosophy_in_prison

Kitson, A., & Campbell, R. (2001). Case studies in business ethics. In A. Malachowski (Ed.), Business ethics: Critical perspectives on business and management (Vol. IV, pp. 7–12). London: Routledge.

May, S. (2012). Case studies in organizational communication: Ethical perspectives and practices. Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.

Rachels, S., & Rachels, J. (2019). The elements of moral philosophy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

Ronda, N. (2011, June 19). Starburst- Commercial [funny]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jodb9lkwnd8

Chapter 2--Morality and Decision Making Copyright © 2018 by Christopher Brooks is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Navigating the Ethical Decision Making Process: A Guide for Ethical Dilemmas

Women and Business

In our complex and interconnected world, individuals and organizations often face ethical dilemmas that require careful consideration and decision-making. The ethical decision making process is that involves analyzing and evaluating various options to make choices that align with moral principles and values. It serves as a moral compass, guiding us towards actions deemed right or good while helping us navigate challenging ethical situations.

Table of Contents

Understanding Ethical Dilemmas

Ethical dilemmas are situations where individuals or organizations face conflicting moral principles or values, making it difficult to determine the right course of action. These dilemmas often arise when there is a clash between different ethical considerations or when no clear-cut solution fully satisfies all parties involved.

Ethical dilemmas can emerge in various contexts, including personal relationships, professional settings, and societal issues. They can range from straightforward decisions with relatively low stakes to complex, morally ambiguous scenarios with far-reaching consequences.

To better understand ethical dilemmas, let’s explore some key aspects:

1. Conflicting Values:  Ethical dilemmas often involve conflicting values or principles. For example, a healthcare professional may face a dilemma when the principle of patient autonomy conflicts with the duty to protect patient confidentiality.

2. Limited Resources:  A scarcity of resources can give rise to ethical dilemmas. When resources are limited, individuals or organizations may face difficult choices in allocating those resources, leading to moral conflicts and challenges.

3. Multiple Stakeholders:  Ethical dilemmas frequently involve multiple stakeholders with interests and perspectives. Balancing these interests and finding a solution that satisfies everyone can be extremely challenging.

4. Uncertainty and Complexity : Ethical dilemmas can arise when there is a lack of clear information, or the consequences of different choices are uncertain. The complexity of the situation further complicates the decision-making process.

5. Moral Obligations:  Ethical dilemmas often involve conflicting moral obligations. For instance, a business executive may need help choosing between maximizing profits for shareholders and ensuring fair treatment for employees.

Key Components of Ethical Decision-Making

Ethical decision-making is a deliberate and systematic process that helps individuals and organizations make choices aligned with moral principles and values. While the specific steps may vary depending on the context, several key components are integral to ethical decision-making. Let’s explore these components:

• Identifying the Ethical Issue:  The first step in ethical decision-making is identifying the ethical issue or dilemma. It involves recognizing the conflict between different values or principles and understanding the underlying moral concerns.
• Gathering Relevant Information:  Ethical decision-making requires comprehensive and accurate information about the ethical issue. It includes understanding the context, considering relevant facts, and exploring different perspectives.
• Considering Different Perspectives:  It is important to consider the viewpoints and interests of all stakeholders involved in the ethical dilemma. It involves actively seeking diverse perspectives and empathetically understanding the concerns and values of others.
• Analyzing Potential Consequences:  Ethical decision-making involves a thorough analysis of the potential consequences of different courses of action. It includes considering short-term and long-term outcomes and their potential impact on other individuals or groups.
• Evaluating Available Alternatives:  Generating and evaluating various alternatives is crucial in ethical decision-making. It involves brainstorming and considering different options that could address the moral issue in a morally acceptable manner.
• Applying Ethical Frameworks and Principles:  Ethical decision-making often involves using established ethical frameworks or principles to guide the decision-making process. These frameworks can provide a structured approach and guidelines for assessing the moral implications of different choices.
• Reflecting on Personal Values:  Ethical decision-making requires self-reflection and introspection. It involves examining one’s values, beliefs, and biases to ensure that personal values do not influence decision-making.

Ethical Decision-Making Models

Ethical decision-making models provide frameworks and processes to guide individuals and organizations in making moral choices. These models offer structured approaches that help assess and analyze ethical dilemmas, consider relevant factors, and arrive at ethically sound decisions. Here are some prominent ethical decision-making models:

• The Utilitarian Model:  The utilitarian model, associated with philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, focuses on maximizing overall happiness or utility. Ethical decisions should aim to produce the greatest net benefit for many people. This model involves assessing the potential consequences of different actions and selecting the one that maximizes overall well-being.
• The Deontological Model:  Deontological ethics, influenced by philosopher Immanuel Kant, emphasizes moral duties and principles. According to this model, ethical decisions should be guided by universal moral principles, regardless of their consequences. Key principles include the categorical imperative, which requires treating individuals as ends in themselves and not merely as a means to an end.
• The Virtue Ethics Model: Virtue ethics, rooted in the works of Aristotle, focuses on cultivating virtuous character traits. This model suggests that ethical decisions should be based on personal virtues such as honesty, integrity, courage, and compassion. It emphasizes the development of good character and the pursuit of excellence in ethical behaviour.  
• The Rights-Based Model: The rights-based model focuses on individual rights and justice. IEthicaldecisions should respect and protect the rights of all individuals involved. This model emphasizes fairness, equality, and the notion that individuals have inherent rights that should not be violated.  
• The Ethical Decision Making Process Model provides a step-by-step process for making ethical decisions. It typically involves identifying the moral issue, gathering relevant information, considering alternative options, evaluating the consequences, applying ethical principles or frameworks , deciding, and reflecting on the outcome.  
• The Four-Component Model: Developed by James Rest, the four-component model comprises four sequential stages: moral sensitivity, moral judgment, moral motivation, and moral action. It highlights the importance of recognizing moral issues, making informed judgments, being motivated to act ethically, and translating intentions into ethical actions.  
• The Integrative Ethical Decision-Making Model  combines elements from various ethical frameworks and decision-making processes. It encourages a comprehensive approach by considering consequences, duties, virtues, and rights. It emphasizes the need to weigh different perspectives and make a balanced, ethical decision.

It’s important to note that these models are not mutually exclusive, and their application may vary depending on the situation. Ethical decision-making models serve as valuable guides, helping individuals and organizations navigate ethical dilemmas and make more informed and moral choices.

Factors Influencing Ethical Decision-Making

Ethical decision-making is influenced by many factors that can shape our perception, reasoning, and choices when confronted with ethical dilemmas. These factors can vary depending on individual, cultural, and contextual considerations. Here are some key factors that commonly influence ethical decision-making:

• Personal Values and Beliefs:  Personal values and beliefs play a significant role in ethical decision-making. Our moral compass, shaped by upbringing, culture, and life experiences, guides our perceptions of right and wrong. Our values and beliefs influence the principles we prioritize and the ethical frameworks we apply when making decisions.
• Organizational Culture and Policies:  The culture and policies of the organization or institution we belong to can significantly impact ethical decision-making. Corporate values, norms, and codes of conduct shape the ethical environment and can influence our choices. Strong ethical leadership, commitment to integrity, and clear ethical guidelines foster a culture that supports ethical decision-making.
• Legal and Regulatory Considerations:  Laws and regulations provide a legal framework for ethical decision-making. Legal requirements and compliance obligations can shape the boundaries and constraints within which individuals and organizations make moral choices. Compliance with laws and regulations is often a baseline expectation for ethical behaviour.
• Social and Cultural Influences:  Social and cultural norms, expectations, and pressures can influence ethical decision-making. The values and moral standards upheld by the larger society or community in which we operate can shape our perceptions of acceptable or unacceptable behaviour. Social approval or disapproval, social norms, and the desire to conform can impact our ethical choices.
• Professional Standards and Ethical Codes:  In specific professional contexts, such as healthcare, law, or business, there are often established professional standards and codes of ethics. These standards provide guidance and expectations for ethical behaviour within these professions. Adhering to professional principles and standards can influence ethical decision-making in these domains.
• Cognitive Biases:  Cognitive biases are inherent biases in human thinking that can distort ethical decision-making. Biases such as confirmation bias (favouring information that confirms existing beliefs), availability bias (relying on readily available data), and anchoring bias (being influenced by initial information) can impact the way we perceive and evaluate ethical dilemmas.
• Time Pressure and Stress:  Time pressure and stress can affect ethical decision-making. When faced with time constraints or high-pressure situations, individuals may be more prone to shortcuts, biased thinking, or decisions prioritizing immediate outcomes over long-term ethical considerations.
• Peer Influence and Social Pressure:  The influence of peers, colleagues, or superiors can shape ethical decision-making. Social pressures to conform, fear of disapproval, or the desire to please others can impact our choices. Peer support and ethical role models can also positively influence ethical decision-making.
• Moral Development and Ethical Competence:  Individual moral development and ethical competence   can influence decision-making. Moral reasoning abilities, ethical awareness, and the capacity for righteous judgment can impact the quality and integrity of ethical decision-making.

Recognizing and understanding these factors can help individuals and organizations navigate ethical decision-making more effectively. By actively considering these influences, seeking diverse perspectives, and engaging in reflective and critical thinking, we can enhance our ethical decision-making capabilities and promote ethical behaviour in various contexts.

Ethical Decision Making Process in Practice

Ethical decision-making in practice involves applying principles and processes to real-life situations. It requires individuals and organizations to navigate complex ethical dilemmas and make choices that align with moral values and principles. Here are some key aspects of ethical decision-making in practice:

• Contextual Analysis:  Ethical decision-making requires understanding the specific context in which the dilemma arises. It includes considering the stakeholders involved, the values and norms of the particular setting, and any relevant laws or regulations. Analyzing the context helps identify the situation’s ethical dimensions and determine the appropriate course of action.
• Gathering Information:  To make informed ethical decisions, it is crucial to gather relevant information about the issue. It may involve researching facts, consulting experts, seeking different perspectives, and considering the potential consequences of various choices. Gathering comprehensive information enables a more comprehensive understanding of the ethical implications and aids in evaluating alternatives.
• Applying Ethical Frameworks and Principles:  Ethical decision-making involves using ethical frameworks or principles to guide the decision-making process. It may include considering utilitarianism, deontological ethics, virtue ethics, or other relevant ethical theories. Applying these frameworks helps analyze the situation, evaluate options, and assess the moral implications of different choices.
• Balancing Conflicting Interests:  Ethical decision-making often involves balancing conflicting interests and values. It requires considering the perspectives and needs of all stakeholders involved and seeking equitable and fair solutions. It may involve compromising or finding creative ways to address competing concerns while upholding ethical principles.
• Collaboration and Consultation:  Ethical decision-making benefits from cooperation and consultation with others. Seeking input from diverse stakeholders, engaging in open dialogue, and considering different viewpoints can enrich decision-making. Collaboration also helps address biases, broaden perspectives, and ensure a more inclusive and ethical outcome.
• Ethical Leadership:  In organizational contexts, ethical leadership influences ethical decision-making. Leaders play a crucial role in setting the tone, promoting ethical values, and establishing a culture of integrity. Ethical leaders model honourable behaviour, provide guidance, and create an environment encouraging open discussions about moral dilemmas.
• Ethical Reflection and Evaluation:  After making a moral decision, reflecting on the process and evaluating the outcome is important. This reflection helps in learning from the experience, identifying areas for improvement, and refining ethical decision-making skills. Assessing the consequences of the decision also informs future choices and contributes to continuous moral growth.
• Ethical Courage:  Ethical decision-making often requires courage to stand up for what is right, even facing challenges or potential consequences. It involves maintaining integrity, staying true to ethical principles, and taking risks when necessary.

Ethical decision-making in practice is a continuous process that involves ongoing learning, self-reflection, and improvement. Individuals and organizations must navigate complex moral landscapes with ethical awareness, critical thinking, and a commitment to ethical values. Integrating ethical decision-making into everyday practices can foster a culture of integrity and contribute to positive ethical outcomes in various domains.

Ethical Leadership and Decision-Making

Ethical leadership plays a critical role in shaping ethical decision-making within organizations and influencing the behaviour of individuals. Ethical leaders set the tone, establish expectations, and guide ethical behaviour. They are role models, demonstrating integrity, transparency, and a commitment to moral values. Here are key aspects of the relationship between ethical leadership and decision-making:

• Setting Ethical Standards:  Ethical leaders establish clear ethical standards and expectations for organizational behaviour. They articulate a shared vision of ethical conduct, promoting honesty, fairness, respect, and social responsibility. These standards serve as guiding principles for ethical decision-making at all levels of the organization.
• Creating a Culture of Integrity:  Ethical leaders foster a culture of integrity where ethical decision-making is valued and encouraged. They create an environment that promotes open communication, honest discussions, and the opportunity to raise ethical concerns without fear of reprisal. Such a culture supports individuals in making moral choices and safeguards against unethical behaviour.
• Promoting Ethical Decision Making Processes: Ethical leaders advocate using systematic and principled ethical decision making processes within the organization. They encourage individuals to consider different perspectives, gather relevant information, and apply ethical frameworks when faced with ethical dilemmas. By promoting structured decision-making processes, ethical leaders ensure that moral choices are well thought-out and based on solid ethical reasoning.
• Role Modeling Ethical Behavior:  Ethical leaders lead by example, serving as role models for ethical behaviour. They demonstrate integrity, consistency, and ethical conduct in their actions. By consistently aligning their behaviours with moral values, they inspire others to do the same and reinforce the importance of ethical decision-making.
• Ethical Decision-Making Support:  Ethical leaders support and guide individuals facing ethical dilemmas. They offer resources, mentorship, and opportunities for honest discussions. Ethical leaders are approachable and accessible, creating an environment where individuals feel comfortable seeking guidance and advice when making difficult moral choices.
• Holding Accountable for Ethical Conduct:  Ethical leaders hold individuals accountable for their ethical conduct. They establish mechanisms to ensure adherence to ethical standards and address unethical behaviour promptly and appropriately. By promoting accountability, ethical leaders reinforce the importance of ethical decision-making and create a culture where ethical lapses are not tolerated.
• Long-Term Ethical Perspective:  Ethical leaders adopt a long-term perspective in decision-making. They consider the potential consequences and ethical implications of decisions beyond short-term gains. Ethical leaders prioritize sustainable and socially responsible outcomes, considering the impact of decisions on stakeholders, the environment, and the wider society.
• Ethical Communication:  Ethical leaders foster open and transparent communication. They encourage honest and ethical communication within the organization, ensuring that relevant information is shared and different viewpoints are heard. Ethical leaders create an environment where moral considerations are part of the dialogue, enabling more informed and ethical decision-making.

Ethical leadership has a profound impact on ethical decision-making within organizations. Ethical leaders promote ethical decision making processes by cultivating a culture of integrity, providing guidance, modelling ethical behaviour and contributing to a more ethical organizational climate.

Overcoming Challenges and Ethical Decision-Making Pitfalls

Ethical decision-making can be complex and challenging, with various pitfalls and biases hindering the process. It is important to be aware of these challenges and take steps to overcome them. Here are some common challenges and strategies for overcoming them:

• Cognitive Biases:  Cognitive biases are inherent biases in human thinking that can influence ethical decision-making. Biases such as confirmation, availability, and anchoring biases can distort our perception of ethical dilemmas and hinder objective analysis. Engaging in critical thinking, actively seeking out diverse perspectives, and challenging our assumptions are crucial to overcoming biases. Reflecting on the situation and objectively examining the evidence can help counteract cognitive biases.
• Emotional Influences:  Emotions can strongly influence ethical decision-making. Strong emotions like fear, guilt, or personal attachments can cloud judgment and lead to biased decisions. It is important to recognize and manage emotions in ethical decision-making. Taking a step back, seeking input from others, and considering the long-term moral consequences can help mitigate the impact of emotions.
• Moral Relativism:  Moral relativism is the belief that ethical decisions are subjective and vary from person to person or culture to culture. It can lead to ethical ambiguity and make reaching a consensus on ethical choices challenging. To overcome moral relativism, engaging in ethical reasoning and considering universal principles and values that can guide ethical decision-making is important. Engaging in dialogue and seeking input from diverse perspectives can also help gain a broader understanding of ethical issues.
• Time Constraints and Pressure:  Ethical decision-making can be compromised when there are time constraints or high-pressure situations. The pressure to make quick decisions can lead to shortcuts or overlooking important ethical considerations. To address this challenge, it is important to prioritize ethical decision-making, even in time-sensitive cases. Taking a moment to pause, seeking advice from others, and considering the potential long-term consequences can help make more ethical choices.
• Lack of Information:  There needs to be more complete information to ensure ethical decision-making. With a comprehensive understanding of the moral issue and its implications, it becomes easier to make informed choices. To overcome this challenge, gathering as much relevant information as possible is important. Conducting research, seeking expert advice, and consulting multiple sources can help obtain a complete picture of the ethical dilemma.

  Conflicting Interests and Pressures: Ethical decision-making can become challenging when conflicting interests or external pressures exist. These pressures may come from stakeholders, financial considerations, or the desire to maintain relationships. It is important to identify and address these conflicts openly and transparently. Upholding ethical principles and values, seeking compromise, and considering the long-term impact can help navigate conflicting interests.  

• Lack of Ethical Awareness and Education:  A lack of ethical awareness or education can hinder ethical decision-making. With a solid understanding of ethical frameworks, principles and the ability to analyze ethical dilemmas, individuals may be able to make moral choices. To overcome this challenge, individuals should seek moral education and training opportunities. Developing ethical reasoning skills and staying updated on ethical standards can enhance decision-making capabilities.
• Lack of Accountability:  Ethical decision-making can be compromised when there is a lack of accountability for unethical behaviour. When individuals or organizations are not held accountable for their actions, it can erode trust and discourage ethical decision-making. To address this challenge, it is important to establish clear mechanisms for accountability, such as moral codes of conduct, reporting tools, and consequences for unethical behaviour.

Individuals and organizations can enhance their ethical decision-making capabilities by being aware of these challenges and employing strategies to overcome them. Emphasizing critical thinking, moral reasoning, open communication, and ongoing ethical education can help navigate the complexities of ethical dilemmas and promote a culture of integrity.

The ethical decision making  process is that guides individuals and organizations in navigating complex ethical dilemmas. By considering ethical principles, analyzing consequences, and applying structured decision-making processes, we can strive to make choices that uphold integrity, fairness, and social responsibility .

Throughout this article, we have explored the key components of ethical decision-making, including identifying the moral issue, gathering relevant information, considering different perspectives, analyzing consequences, evaluating alternatives, and applying ethical frameworks. We have also discussed various ethical decision-making models and the factors influencing moral choices.

Ethical decision-making has its challenges. Cognitive biases, emotional influences, time constraints, and conflicting interests can pose obstacles. However, by recognizing these challenges and employing strategies such as critical thinking, reflection, seeking diverse perspectives, and managing emotions, we can overcome these pitfalls and make more informed and ethical decisions.

Ethical leadership is vital in fostering a culture of integrity and influencing ethical decision-making within organizations. Ethical leaders set clear standards, promote ethical behaviour, and provide guidance and support to individuals faced with ethical dilemmas. They serve as role models, ensuring that ethical considerations are integrated into everyday practices.

 Ethical decision-making is a continuous process that requires ongoing learning, self-reflection, and a commitment to moral values. Individuals and organizations can contribute to a more just and responsible society by prioritizing ethical decision-making. Let us strive to embrace ethical decision-making as a fundamental principle, empowering ourselves and others to make choices that promote the greater good and uphold our moral obligations.

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Developing critical thinking and ethical global engagement in students

What do students need to know and be able to do when they graduate? Will they be able to work collaboratively to address complex global problems? These questions address one of the core purposes of international education: preparing a globally competent workforce, and, more importantly, globally competent human beings. This blog dives into just how to instill these skills in international students.

Higher education institutions and employers agree that critical thinking, as well as ethical reasoning and decision-making, are necessary skills to have and be able to translate into action. Acquisition of critical thinking and ethical reasoning skills and opportunities to apply these skills in globally relevant contexts (eg study abroad, exchanges, service learning, advocacy and activism on their campuses) has the potential for deep, meaningful, high-impact experiences that will better prepare students to be active and globally competent individuals. Both critical thinking and ethical reasoning are teachable skills that students can and should learn.

Developing critical thinking

Critical thinking involves thoughtful and systematic processing of information so that we can better understand the complexity of issues and make sounder decisions. A critical mind is a questioning mind. Hence, critical thinking develops through an inquiry-based learning process. Asking essential questions and posing problems or scenarios inspire a quest for knowledge and problem solving. Consider the following questions:

A critical mind is a questioning mind.

• What does ‘global community’ mean to you? Why is sustaining it important (or not)?
• How is one’s worldview (beliefs about self, others and the world) formed and transformed?
• Why is polarisation of worldviews on the rise in the world today?
• How can we shift the dynamic of how individuals with different, sometimes opposing, worldviews relate to each other?

Seeking answers to questions such as these is fundamental to understanding ourselves, others and the larger world, and being a change agent. However, in tackling collaborative problem-solving in the global context, students also need to be aware of the complexity of issues from multiple perspectives. They need to acquire dialogue skills, understand another’s point of view, be aware of one’s own assumptions, be self-aware and other-aware, and engage meta-cognitive skills (thinking about one’s own thinking). The ability to invite individuals with a different worldview from their own into a process of transformation and problem solving by listening closely to their perspectives is an integral part of dialogue and critical thinking. Furthermore, the ability to regulate one’s own emotions in the times when our core beliefs are being challenged is a fundamental skill for globally competent citizens.

Developing ethical global engagement

Ethical reasoning is an applied and teachable critical thinking skill, often enriched through international education. Cross-cultural experiences prompt encounters with difference, thereby causing cognitive dissonance and providing opportunities for a deeper application of ethical reasoning in real life.

One applied ethical reasoning programme offers a unique way of developing ethical reasoning skills for higher education students. Some of the characteristics of this programme follow:

Ethical reasoning develops over time

The development of ethical reasoning skills and mindful engagement with ethical dilemmas require guided learning and sustained practice over time. Learning and practicing ethical reasoning skills through case scenarios where the learner is placed in the role of decision-maker provide opportunities to internalise the ethical reasoning process and encourage automatic application in real life situations.

Engaging in inquiry before making a decision

Humans tend to justify their conduct and decisions after they have acted or made a decision. The goal of ethical reasoning education is to get better in ethical decision making, rather than in justifying previous conduct or decisions. Hence, developing ethical reasoning skills in students requires engaging them in inquiry, in asking as many questions as possible relevant to the ethical dilemma, before making a decision.

Inquiry process in groups yields richer learning experiences

We all have preferred values that guide ethical decision-making (eg some may give preference to outcomes, while others to fairness or responsibility). For this reason, practicing ethical decision-making in a group provides richer learning experiences and potentially better-informed ethical decisions. Fostering the inquiry process in a group opens new ways of thinking, moves one beyond self-interest, and introduces consideration of others, community and multiple stakeholders in a decision-making process.

Self-awareness and metacognitive skills are necessary for ethical global engagement

Self-awareness and the ability to think about our own thinking are key to developing critical thinking and ethical reasoning in students. Specifically, the ability to recognise and separate one’s personal biases or self-interests is important for making decisions. Reflection about aspects of one’s identity (both privileged and oppressed), assumptions we hold about communities with which we are engaging, and ways we interpret what we observe, lead to greater self-awareness. Educators also need to reflect critically on a variety of ethical issues (eg how we teach, what dilemmas/case studies we choose, issues of power, etc) as well as on the process through which we guide students.

A call for action

In the current global political climate, when polarisation of beliefs and conflict between the worldviews are growing, higher education institutions have a paramount task: the consideration of how we are developing critical thinking and engaging students in ethical reasoning. We need to focus more strongly on developing these skills and making sure that the next generations acquire skills necessary to be globally competent citizens. The ability to engage with diverse worldviews while addressing complex global problems is vital to the sustainable relationships and systems in the world today.

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The Connection between Critical Thinking and Ethics: Unraveling the Link

The connection between critical thinking and ethics is a significant one, as both concepts play crucial roles in decision-making and problem-solving. Critical thinking is the process of evaluating and analyzing information to reach well-founded conclusions, while ethics involves the principles and standards that guide our behavior.

Developing a strong sense of critical thinking and ethical awareness is crucial for individuals to become responsible citizens and decision-makers. When applied together, these skills allow people to engage in a balanced and rational examination of various ethical issues, thereby promoting fair judgment and responsible action within their personal and professional lives.

The Concepts of Critical Thinking and Ethics

Defining critical thinking, defining ethics.

Ethics, on the other hand, deals with moral principles that govern an individual’s or group’s behavior. It is the study of what is right or wrong and how we should act in various situations. Ethical reasoning involves the application of moral values to guide actions and decisions in various contexts.

The Importance of Critical Thinking in Ethical Decision-Making

Critical thinking plays a vital role in ethical decision-making by providing the tools needed to carefully evaluate situations, examine various perspectives, and make informed choices that align with personal and professional values without making exaggerated or false claims.

Recognizing Ethical Issues

Evaluating ethical choices.

In the process of ethical decision-making, critical thinking plays a key role in evaluating the strengths and weaknesses of each available option. It helps individuals to determine whether or not something is right or wrong , taking into account both facts and values. This evaluation helps in understanding the basis of one’s beliefs and decisions and in considering alternative solutions before making choices.

Implementing Ethical Solutions

Once ethical issues have been recognized and evaluated, critical thinking aids in the implementation of ethical solutions. It allows individuals to weigh the consequences of each action, taking into account the possible impacts on stakeholders and the broader society. Critical thinking promotes conscious, well-informed decisions that are in line with personal and professional beliefs, ensuring that the chosen solutions consider all possible outcomes and adhere to the principles of ethical decision-making.

Section 4: Developing Critical Thinking and Ethical Reasoning Skills

Education and curricula.

By incorporating ethical reasoning into educational programs, students learn to operationalize their reflective questioning skills as the basis for ethical decision-making. Understanding the various ethical frameworks and perspectives can help students think critically and make well-reasoned decisions in complex situations (source) .

Exercises and Practice

Section 5: challenges and limitations, cognitive biases, emotional influence.

Another challenge in connecting critical thinking and ethics is emotional influence. Our emotions can significantly impact our ability to think critically and ethically. Emotional experiences may lead to hasty decisions without considering ethical implications. To overcome this challenge, individuals must learn to balance emotion and reason, allowing them to maintain a neutral perspective during decision-making processes.

Cultural Differences

Lastly, cultural differences can create a barrier when trying to foster the relationship between critical thinking and ethics. Different cultures often have unique ethical values and practices, making it difficult to establish universal ethical principles. Understanding and respecting these differences is crucial in mitigating the potential for miscommunication and ethical conflicts.

In conclusion, the relationship between critical thinking and ethics is a fundamental aspect of how we make decisions in our daily lives. Critical thinking allows us to see the world from different perspectives and to make ethical decisions based on our understanding and analysis of facts.

The importance of this relationship cannot be understated, as it influences the choices we make and their impact on ourselves and others. Developing a strong foundation in critical thinking not only allows us to make informed and ethical decisions but also contributes to a deeper understanding of the world and the various perspectives within it.

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Culture Development

Doing the right thing: ethical decision-making.

• April 11, 2024

In today’s complex and ever-changing world, making ethical decisions is crucial. Whether in personal or professional situations, our choices can have far-reaching consequences. This article explores the process of ethical decision-making, challenges that may arise, strategies to navigate ethical dilemmas, and the impact of our choices on personal growth and society as a whole.

Understanding Ethical Decision-Making

Before delving into the intricacies of ethical decision-making , it is essential to establish a clear understanding of what ethics entails. Ethics refers to the moral principles and values that guide our behavior and decision-making processes. It encompasses many topics, including honesty, fairness, responsibility, and respect for others.

When faced with a decision, ethical decision-making involves assessing available options and choosing the one that aligns with our personal values and societal standards. It requires careful consideration of our choices’ potential consequences and impacts on individuals and the broader community.

Defining Ethics in Decision-Making

In the context of decision-making, ethics serve as a framework to evaluate the rightness or wrongness of an action. It involves considering the immediate benefits or gains and the long-term effects and potential harm caused by our decisions.

By adhering to ethical standards, we aim to ensure fairness, justice, and the well-being of those affected by our decisions. This includes considering the rights and interests of all stakeholders involved, including employees, customers, shareholders, and the wider society.

The Importance of Ethical Choices

Every decision has consequences, and ethical choices are pivotal in shaping the world around us. Making ethical decisions strengthens our character and promotes trust and integrity.

When we consistently make ethical choices, we contribute to a more just and equitable society. Our actions inspire others to follow suit, creating a ripple effect that can lead to positive change on a larger scale.

Furthermore, ethical choices help build and maintain relationships based on trust and mutual respect. When individuals and organizations prioritize ethics, they establish a reputation for integrity, leading to increased credibility and opportunities for collaboration.

Moreover, ethical decision-making is essential for sustainable development. By considering our choices’ environmental and social impacts, we can contribute to preserving natural resources and the well-being of future generations.

Understanding ethical decision-making is crucial for navigating the complexities of today’s world. By incorporating ethical principles into our decision-making processes, we can make choices that benefit ourselves and promote the greater good of society as a whole.

The Process of Ethical Decision-Making

Ethical decision-making follows a systematic process that helps us navigate morally complex situations with clarity and integrity. It involves several key steps that allow us to identify ethical dilemmas , evaluate options and consequences, and ultimately make ethical choices.

Identifying Ethical Dilemmas

The first step in ethical decision-making is to recognize when we are faced with an ethical dilemma. Ethical dilemmas arise when we encounter competing values or conflicting interests. These dilemmas can manifest in various contexts, such as the workplace, personal relationships, or societal issues.

For example, imagine a scenario where a company is considering outsourcing its production to a foreign country with lower labor costs. On one hand, this decision may lead to increased company profitability and potentially lower consumer prices. On the other hand, it raises concerns about exploiting workers in a foreign country and potentially losing jobs in the company’s home country.

By acknowledging and understanding the underlying ethical concerns, we can better assess the situation and identify potential courses of action. This step requires careful reflection and consideration of the values and principles that guide our decision-making.

Evaluating Options and Consequences

Once we have identified the ethical dilemma, the next step is to evaluate the available options and their potential consequences. It is essential to consider both short-term and long-term implications and the potential impact on various stakeholders.

In the example of the company considering outsourcing, the options may include proceeding with the outsourcing plan, exploring alternative ways to reduce costs without outsourcing, or maintaining the current production practices. Each option carries its potential consequences, ranging from financial outcomes to social and environmental impacts.

During the evaluation process, gathering relevant information, consulting with experts or stakeholders, and weighing the potential benefits and harms associated with each option is crucial. This comprehensive assessment enables us to make informed decisions rooted in ethical considerations.

Making the Ethical Choice

After careful analysis and evaluation, it is time to make an ethical choice. This involves selecting the option that best aligns with our values, ethical principles, and societal norms. Making an ethical choice often requires courage, as it may involve standing up against societal pressure or personal biases.

In the case of the company considering outsourcing, making the ethical choice may involve prioritizing fair labor practices and the well-being of workers over short-term financial gains. It may require advocating for better working conditions and exploring alternative cost-saving measures that do not compromise ethical standards.

It is important to note that ethical decision-making is not always straightforward. Different individuals or groups may have differing perspectives on what constitutes an ethical choice. Engaging in open dialogue, considering diverse viewpoints, and seeking guidance from ethical frameworks or codes of conduct can help navigate these complexities.

By following a systematic ethical decision-making process, we can approach morally complex situations with clarity, integrity, and a commitment to upholding ethical principles. This process empowers us to make choices that align with our values and contribute to a more ethical and just society.

Challenges in Ethical Decision-Making

Despite the importance of ethical decision-making, it is not without its challenges. Various factors can cloud our judgment and make it difficult to navigate morally complex situations.

One of the primary challenges in ethical decision-making is the presence of personal bias. Our personal biases and beliefs can significantly influence our decision-making process. 

Preconceived notions and prejudices may lead us to make choices inconsistent with ethical principles. For example, suppose someone holds a deep-seated bias against a certain group of people. In that case, they may be more likely to make decisions that discriminate against them, even if it goes against their ethical values. 

Overcoming personal bias requires self-awareness and a willingness to critically examine our assumptions and perspectives. It involves recognizing that our biases can cloud our judgment and actively working to mitigate their impact on our decision-making.

In addition to personal bias, societal pressure can pose a significant challenge in ethical decision-making. Societal norms and expectations can exert considerable pressure on individuals when making ethical choices. The desire to conform or avoid conflict can sometimes compromise our ability to act ethically. 

For instance, in a work environment where cutting corners and bending the rules is the norm, an individual may feel pressured to engage in unethical behavior to fit in or avoid negative consequences. By recognizing and resisting societal pressure, we can uphold our values and make decisions that align with our ethical principles. This requires courage and a strong sense of personal integrity.

Furthermore, ethical decision-making can be complicated by conflicting interests. In many situations, individuals may be torn between competing values or obligations. For example, a business owner may face a decision that pits their company’s financial success against their employees’ well-being. 

Balancing these conflicting interests requires careful consideration and a deep understanding of each choice’s potential consequences. It may involve seeking stakeholder input, conducting thorough research, and weighing the decision’s long-term impact.

Another challenge in ethical decision-making is the lack of clear guidelines or standards. Sometimes, there may be no established rules or regulations to guide our choices. This can leave individuals feeling uncertain and vulnerable, as they must rely on their judgment to determine the ethical course of action. 

In such cases, relying on ethical frameworks and principles to guide decision-making becomes crucial. These frameworks can provide a structured approach to evaluating the potential ethical implications of different choices and help individuals make informed decisions.

Ultimately, ethical decision-making is a complex process that requires careful consideration of various factors. Personal bias, societal pressure, conflicting interests, and the absence of clear guidelines all contribute to our challenges when making ethical choices. By recognizing and addressing these challenges, we can strive to make decisions that uphold our values and promote ethical behavior.

Strategies for Ethical Decision-Making

To navigate ethical dilemmas effectively, it is helpful to employ strategies that guide our decision-making process and ensure ethical outcomes.

When faced with ethical dilemmas, knowing the right course of action can be challenging. However, we can approach these situations with clarity and integrity by utilizing specific strategies. Let’s explore some methods that can help us make ethical decisions.

Developing a Personal Code of Ethics

Creating a personal code of ethics provides a foundation for ethical decision-making. It involves clarifying our values, principles, and priorities. By establishing a clear ethical framework, we can consistently make choices that align with our core beliefs.

When developing a personal code of ethics, we must reflect on our values and consider how they shape our decision-making process. This reflective exercise allows us to understand what is truly important to us and how we want to conduct ourselves in various situations.

Moreover, a personal code of ethics serves as a compass, guiding us through the complexities of ethical dilemmas. It helps us stay true to our principles and make decisions that align with our moral compass.

Implementing Ethical Guidelines in Decision-Making

Having a set of ethical guidelines can be a valuable tool in decision-making, especially in complex situations. These guidelines are a reference point for assessing potential options and their ethical implications. They act as a compass, helping us navigate morally challenging situations.

When implementing ethical guidelines, it is crucial to consider various factors, such as the potential impact of our decisions on others, the long-term consequences, and the ethical standards of the community or organization we belong.

By referring to ethical guidelines, we can evaluate the different options available to us and choose the one that aligns with our values and principles. These guidelines provide a framework for making informed decisions that prioritize ethical considerations.

Furthermore, ethical guidelines can also help us maintain consistency in our decision-making process. They enable us to approach each ethical dilemma systematically and thoughtfully, ensuring that our choices are grounded in ethical principles.

Employing strategies for ethical decision-making is essential in navigating complex ethical dilemmas. By developing a personal code of ethics and implementing ethical guidelines, we can make informed choices that align with our values and principles. These strategies provide us with a framework to approach ethical decision-making with integrity and ensure ethical outcomes.

The Impact of Ethical Decision-Making

Ethical decision-making goes beyond fulfilling individual responsibilities; it profoundly impacts personal growth and society as a whole.

Ethical Decisions and Personal Growth

Making ethical choices fosters personal growth and development. It enhances our ability to think critically, weigh different perspectives, and act with integrity. By consistently making ethical decisions, we cultivate moral character and become better individuals.

Ethical Choices and Their Influence on Society

The collective impact of ethical decisions shapes the fabric of society. When individuals prioritize ethics in their decision-making, they contribute to a more just and equitable world. Ethical choices ripple through communities and inspire others to follow suit, creating a positive domino effect.

Doing the right thing and engaging in ethical decision-making is not always easy, but it is essential. By understanding the ethical decision-making process, recognizing the challenges that may arise, employing effective strategies, and considering the impact of our choices, we can navigate moral complexities with integrity and contribute to a better world.

For more information on how you and your team can make ethical decisions in your organization, schedule a complimentary consultation with a senior partner at Culture Partners to discuss your goals. Let’s work together to shape your ethical culture and accelerate your journey toward success.

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Ethical Thinking as a 21st Century Skill  

Challenges in Definition and Assessment

Education leaders have long argued for the importance of preparing students for an increasingly global, interconnected, and technologically complex world. The array of skills necessary to thrive in that world—skills such as critical thinking, collaboration, and creativity—present substantial challenges to educators who wish to define, teach, and assess them. In this post, I’ll explore some of these challenges for one of the skills that’s increasingly considered important for 21 st -century thriving: ethical thinking.

The need to support young people’s success after high school has resulted in a proliferation of conceptual and empirical work on a set of skills that go by many names collectively. The most widely used is “ 21st-century skills,” so I use that term here to refer to all such frameworks.

Being a responsible citizen and understanding one’s own and others’ values are elements of many 21 st -century skills frameworks. And with good reason: Full civic participation in the modern world often requires that citizens consider social and scientific issues with ethical dimensions, such as climate change, sustainable economic development, genetic engineering, and artificial intelligence .

For the full collection of related blog posts and literature reviews, see the Center for Assessment’s toolkit, Assessing 21 st Century Skills .

In a recent project for International Baccalaureate (IB), I had the opportunity to explore and define ethical thinking as a cognitive skill that draws from—and intersects with—the ethics-and-values aspects of 21 st -century skills frameworks. After reviewing the literature on ethical thinking , I propose the following definition:

Ethical thinking is the process of identifying and describing ethical issues in a variety of contexts, articulating the ethical considerations involved in different responses to those issues, and providing a rationale for a position that addresses those considerations.

In this definition, ethical issues are dilemmas that cannot be resolved without entertaining ethical considerations , which include notions of right and wrong; the dignity and rights of persons, communities, and non-human animals; values, principles, and core beliefs; justice and care; and similar considerations.

This definition draws primarily from 21 st -century skills frameworks and a cognitive framing for the target skill. Importantly, ethical thinking doesn’t mean having specific values or acting in particular ways (although, of course, ethical thinking engages one’s own values and is about values and actions). My definition is also informed by the literature on ethics and moral reasoning in philosophy, religious traditions, psychology, and moral and character education.

Much more has been written about defining moral reasoning than the construct of ethical thinking, especially in psychology and moral and character education. From these fields, we can survey findings on the development of moral reasoning, its cultural variability, how it is taught in schools, and how it has been measured, and gain a bit of insight into how we might do likewise with ethical thinking.

Development and Cultural Variability of Moral Reasoning

The development of moral reasoning has enjoyed extensive study in psychology for at least a century, with the foundational theories of educational psychologists Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg positing a progression of stages. In the 1980s, psychologist and ethicist Carol Gilligan questioned that earlier work’s applicability to women, which resulted in the elevation of care as an ethical framing distinct from Kohlberg’s justice-and-principles framing. Elliot Turiel and his colleagues’ work in domain theory has further expanded our understanding of young children’s moral development and confirmed that they distinguish between ethical considerations and social norms.

Outside of education (and the U.S.), the findings of moral psychologist Jonathan Haidt are poised to influence future research on moral development and, consequently, ideas about what it means to engage in ethical thinking. His identification of moral foundations that extend beyond justice and care also contributes to the cross-cultural dimension of ethical thinking as a valued outcome of education. 

Instructional Approaches to Ethical Thinking

Moral and character education programs have been the primary means for providing students with direct instruction in ethical thinking. Pedagogies for developing ethical thinking include approaches aligned with Kohlbergian stage-based theories, domain theory, constructivism, and social-emotional learning. These methods acknowledge the critical role of schooling structures (such as relative student autonomy, student-versus teacher-centeredness of classrooms, and disciplinary policies and practices) and establishing the right atmosphere for moral development.

In a 21 st -century-skills framing, ethical thinking has a cross-disciplinary character that calls for greater integration with the core curriculum. Accordingly, my proposed definition emphasizes that ethical thinking is always contextualized; it doesn’t happen in the abstract. In practice, this means that opportunities for students to engage in ethical thinking would ideally arise within their instructional programs.

Assessment of Ethical Thinking

There are several well-validated instruments for assessing moral reasoning. Many of these are variations of the Defining Issues Tests (DITs) that began with Kohlberg and were further developed by James Rest and his colleagues.

The tests each present about five moral dilemmas to the test-taker. After each dilemma, the test-taker rates or ranks each of several statements that contain fragments designed to activate a particular “moral schema,” which is a related cluster of moral considerations. The “personal interest schema,” for example, concerns direct personal advantage, fairness of exchanges, and maintaining good relationships. Several scores can be derived from DIT responses, including one for each schema.

The DITs capture a person’s dominant moral schema and are suitable instruments for assessing how instruction has resulted in a schema change. However, the DITs don’t reveal much about whether and how a person reasons through the dilemmas or the extent to which they think about and evaluate alternative courses of action (or how they would do so if asked to justify a position on an ethical issue).Assessing ethical thinking would require more insight into this process, which a teacher could elicit one-on-one, in a structured group discussion, through a written assignment or project, etc. The American Association of Colleges and Universities (AAC&U) publishes a rubric for ethical reasoning with elements that capture some of the process aspects of ethical thinking.

Assessment Considerations

Assessing ethical thinking involves practical, technical, and (fittingly) ethical issues. As with other 21 st -century skills, the context and purpose of assessment have heightened relevance when assessing ethical thinking. These skills develop over more extended periods than does the learning of academic content, implying less frequent assessment.

Because they purport to be the skills students carry into future learning or work environments, they also characterize capabilities that are more “core” to the learner than command of specific academic content. This set up a tricky question about feedback from tests on these skills.

When students do less well than they expected on an assessment of academic content, they can learn from their mistakes and better understand what they did not learn. When students demonstrate some shortfall in creative thinking, ethical thinking, or some other 21 st -century skill, however, it is much less clear what they can actually do to improve. These sorts of considerations have led my colleagues Carla Evans, Jeri Thompson, and Chris Brandt to rightly question the utility of broad, decontextualized claims about a student’s command of 21 st -century skills.

Another assessment consideration for all 21 st -century skills, particularly for ethical thinking, is that skill labels carry associations that definitional exercises cannot corral. For ethical thinking, these associations include being an ethical person, coming to the “right” conclusions, and perhaps holding certain values.

None of these characteristics are in my proposed definition of ethical thinking. But no matter how clearly we define our target skill, we cannot disregard those associations—which a student will carry with them after receiving their score, or other form of assessment feedback—when assessing ethical thinking. Instead, we must acknowledge these shared notions when considering where, how, under what circumstances, and to what end we assess ethical thinking and other 21 st -century skills.

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Ideas to Action (i2a)

• Paul-Elder Critical Thinking Framework

Critical thinking is that mode of thinking – about any subject, content, or problem — in which the thinker improves the quality of his or her thinking by skillfully taking charge of the structures inherent in thinking and imposing intellectual standards upon them. (Paul and Elder, 2001). The Paul-Elder framework has three components:

• The elements of thought (reasoning)
• The  intellectual standards that should be applied to the elements of reasoning
• The intellectual traits associated with a cultivated critical thinker that result from the consistent and disciplined application of the intellectual standards to the elements of thought

According to Paul and Elder (1997), there are two essential dimensions of thinking that students need to master in order to learn how to upgrade their thinking. They need to be able to identify the "parts" of their thinking, and they need to be able to assess their use of these parts of thinking.

Elements of Thought (reasoning)

The "parts" or elements of thinking are as follows:

• All reasoning has a purpose
• All reasoning is an attempt to figure something out, to settle some question, to solve some problem
• All reasoning is based on assumptions
• All reasoning is done from some point of view
• All reasoning is based on data, information and evidence
• All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, concepts and ideas
• All reasoning contains inferences or interpretations by which we draw conclusions and give meaning to data
• All reasoning leads somewhere or has implications and consequences

Universal Intellectual Standards

The intellectual standards that are to these elements are used to determine the quality of reasoning. Good critical thinking requires having a command of these standards. According to Paul and Elder (1997 ,2006), the ultimate goal is for the standards of reasoning to become infused in all thinking so as to become the guide to better and better reasoning. The intellectual standards include:

Intellectual Traits

Consistent application of the standards of thinking to the elements of thinking result in the development of intellectual traits of:

• Intellectual Humility
• Intellectual Courage
• Intellectual Empathy
• Intellectual Autonomy
• Intellectual Integrity
• Intellectual Perseverance
• Confidence in Reason
• Fair-mindedness

Characteristics of a Well-Cultivated Critical Thinker

Habitual utilization of the intellectual traits produce a well-cultivated critical thinker who is able to:

• Raise vital questions and problems, formulating them clearly and precisely
• Gather and assess relevant information, using abstract ideas to interpret it effectively
• Come to well-reasoned conclusions and solutions, testing them against relevant criteria and standards;
• Think open-mindedly within alternative systems of thought, recognizing and assessing, as need be, their assumptions, implications, and practical consequences; and
• Communicate effectively with others in figuring out solutions to complex problems

Paul, R. and Elder, L. (2010). The Miniature Guide to Critical Thinking Concepts and Tools. Dillon Beach: Foundation for Critical Thinking Press.

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Leading in Context

Unleash the Positive Power of Ethical Leadership

How Is Critical Thinking Different From Ethical Thinking?

By Linda Fisher Thornton

Ethical thinking and critical thinking are both important and it helps to understand how we need to use them together to make decisions. 

• Critical thinking helps us narrow our choices.  Ethical thinking includes values as a filter to guide us to a choice that is ethical.
• Using critical thinking, we may discover an opportunity to exploit a situation for personal gain.  It’s ethical thinking that helps us realize it would be unethical to take advantage of that exploit.

Develop An Ethical Mindset Not Just Critical Thinking

Critical thinking can be applied without considering how others will be impacted. This kind of critical thinking is self-interested and myopic.

“Critical thinking varies according to the motivation underlying it. When grounded in selfish motives, it is often manifested in the skillful manipulation of ideas in service of one’s own, or one’s groups’, vested interest.” Defining Critical Thinking, The Foundation For Critical Thinking

Critical thinking informed by ethical values is a powerful leadership tool. Critical thinking that sidesteps ethical values is sometimes used as a weapon. 

When we develop leaders, the burden is on us to be sure the mindsets we teach align with ethical thinking. Otherwise we may be helping people use critical thinking to stray beyond the boundaries of ethical business. 

Unl eash the Positive Power of Ethical Leadership

© 2019-2024 Leading in Context LLC

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Thinking Through the Ethics of New Tech…Before There’s a Problem

• Beena Ammanath

Historically, it’s been a matter of trial and error. There’s a better way.

There’s a familiar pattern when a new technology is introduced: It grows rapidly, comes to permeate our lives, and only then does society begin to see and address the problems it creates. But is it possible to head off possible problems? While companies can’t predict the future, they can adopt a sound framework that will help them prepare for and respond to unexpected impacts. First, when rolling out new tech, it’s vital to pause and brainstorm potential risks, consider negative outcomes, and imagine unintended consequences. Second, it can also be clarifying to ask, early on, who would be accountable if an organization has to answer for the unintended or negative consequences of its new technology, whether that’s testifying to Congress, appearing in court, or answering questions from the media. Third, appoint a chief technology ethics officer.

We all want the technology in our lives to fulfill its promise — to delight us more than it scares us, to help much more than it harms. We also know that every new technology needs to earn our trust. Too often the pattern goes like this: A technology is introduced, grows rapidly, comes to permeate our lives, and only then does society begin to see and address any problems it might create.

• BA Beena Ammanath is the Executive Director of the global Deloitte AI Institute, author of the book “Trustworthy AI,” founder of the non-profit Humans For AI, and also leads Trustworthy and Ethical Tech for Deloitte. She is an award-winning senior executive with extensive global experience in AI and digital transformation, spanning across e-commerce, finance, marketing, telecom, retail, software products, services and industrial domains with companies such as HPE, GE, Thomson Reuters, British Telecom, Bank of America, and e*trade.

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More From Forbes

6 benefits from focusing on ethical business decisions.

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ETHICS CONCEPT

As a business consultant, I too often encounter pressures to support business processes or decisions that seem to skirt the boundaries of ethics, all in the name of improving the business or solving a competitive incursion. I’m a firm believer that the benefits of ethical decision-making always outweigh alternatives in critical thinking and business leadership, for long-term success.

I was pleased to see the key benefits of good business ethics detailed in a recent book on how to become a critical thinker, “ On Becoming a Critical Thinker: Awakening Your Business Superpower ,” by John Chetro Szivos. John is a renowned academic and executive who now does leadership consulting work with large domestic organizations and non-profits around the world.

I will outline here his top six proven benefits, with my insights added, of keeping your focus on ethical business solutions, despite pressures to the contrary. He defines them as principles that are inseparable from critical thinking in any business situation:

1. Key to building a strong reputation and trust. Stakeholders will strongly support your consistently ethical decisions and choices, and respond with renewed commitment based on your integrity, fairness, and social responsibility. This will enhance the reputation of both you and your business, resulting in expedited growth and greater business returns.

2. Keep within legal and regulatory frameworks. By factoring in ethical implications, you and your company can avoid potentially engaging in illegal activities that may result in legal issues, fines, and reputation damage. Adhering to ethical standards will help you navigate today’s complex global landscape and meet the expectations of society.

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3. Create a more supportive work environment. When team members witness consistent fair treatment, ethical behavior, and a commitment to doing the right thing, they are more likely to feel engaged, valued, and motivated. This will increase employee satisfaction, productivity, and retention, as they appreciate the alignment with their own values.

4. Generate customer loyalty and satisfaction. Consumers are increasingly conscious of ethical considerations and are more likely to support your business as it demonstrates ethical behavior. It is to your advantage to prioritize ethical values, such as transparency, honesty, and social responsibility, as these will build stronger customer relationships.

5. Mitigate business risk and potential harm. Prioritizing ethical implications helps you to identify and address potential conflicts of interest, environmental impacts, safety concerns, and other business risks. This allows you to implement timely risk mitigation techniques, including internal controls, diversification, insurance, and contingency plans.

6. Increase long-term sustainability and success. By considering the broader social and environmental impacts of your decisions, such as fair labor practices and responsible sourcing, you will contribute to a more sustainable future. You will also build resilience, adapt more quickly to changing market demands, and maintain your competitive edge.

He and I both suggest that these principles be integrated into an ethics framework encompassing a collection of your personal values, guidelines, and ethical principles that you communicate and demonstrate to your team. This will provide a systematic approach for everyone in your business in analyzing complex business and moral issues, and making decisions as you move forward.

Of course, we both recommend that you monitor the progress of the business with a set of metrics to make sure your efforts at critical thinking and focus on ethics has increased your employee retention, customer loyalty, and brand image. Don’t forget to periodically assess your own satisfaction and motivation in your commitment to make the world and your business a better place. Have fun.

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• < Previous chapter

VIII How Can We Improve Our Ethical Beliefs?

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• Published: January 1998
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This concluding chapter returns to our opening methodological question: how can we improve our ethical beliefs? It sets out a procedure: the identification of beliefs of high reliability (e.g. certain beliefs about basic human interests, certain basic moral beliefs, and certain factual beliefs). These beliefs of high reliability can come together to form a single, rather rough picture of forms of a good life for the likes of us living, as we do, in large societies in modern conditions. It was this picture, and not the foundationalist form of coherentist programmes, that began in the previous chapter to eliminate possible accounts of moral norms—for instance, familiar forms of utilitarianism, deontology, and virtue ethics.

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