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DNA: History and Structure.

Published by Karla Laugesen Modified over 5 years ago

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Presentation on theme: "DNA: History and Structure."— Presentation transcript:

DNA Structure.

Griffith and Transformation

Nucleic Acids The Genetic Material. Two types of Nucleic acids RNA RNA DNA DNA.

DNA History and Structure History. Friedrich Miescher  Published in 1871  First to isolate and identify DNA and suggested its role in heredity.

EQ: How did the structure of DNA lead scientist to the function of the molecule?

DNA: History and Structure. A Brief History of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): –Discovery of DNA by many different scientists –1928 – Griffith – studied.

DNA Structure and Function

Chapter 8 From DNA to Protein. 8-2 DNA Structure 3 understandingsGenes 1. Carry information for one generation to the next 2. Determine which traits are.

DNA Structure Review. Questions 1.Name the term used to describe the shape of the DNA molecule. 2.What does DNA stand for? 3.What 3 chemicals make up.

DNA. Nucleic Acids Informational polymers Made of C,H,O,N and P No general formula Examples: DNA and RNA.

DNA DeoxyriboNucleic Acid

DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid. What do we remember about Nucleic Acids?

Chap. 10 : Nucleic Acids & Protein Synthesis I. DNA – deoxyribonucleic acid - function – store and use information to direct activities of the cell and.

Chapter 11: DNA & the Language of Life – Genes are made of DNA Review: – 1928: Griffith used bacteria in mice to discover “transforming factor”

8.2 Structure of DNA TEKS 3F, 6A, 6B The student is expected to: 3F research and describe the history of biology and contributions of scientists; 6A identify.

DNA DeoxyriboNucleic Acid. What can DNA do? Carries information from one generation to the next Determines the heritable characteristics of organisms.

Review What organelle is the “control center” of the cell? The nucleus What structures are found in the nucleus? Chromosomes What structures are located.

DNA. DNA History Griffith – Experimented on mice and observed some harmless strains of bacteria could change into harmful strains. He called this transformation.

DNA The Discovery of DNA. Griffith and Transformation: Transformation: One strain of bacteria (harmless) had changed into disease-causing strain Meant.

DNA and Genes. Prokaryotes VS Eukaryotes Prokaryotes: no defined nucleus and a simplified internal structure Eukaryotes: membrane limited nucleus and.

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DNA Structure History Thesis: Double Helix

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• Students understand:

1. Who contributed to our knowledge of DNA

2.The role DNA plays in our development

3. DNA structure!!

Who were the big players in developing our current DNA knowledge

Chargaff: Discovered the amount of adenine = thymine, guanine = Cytosine.

Franklin: Created images of the DNA molecule.

Watson and Crick: Concluded that DNA looks like a long twisted ladder.

This chemical substance is present in the nucleus

of all cells in all living organisms

DNA controls chemical changes which

take place in cells

The kind of cell which is formed, (muscle,

nerve etc) is controlled by DNA

The kind of organism produced (buttercup,

giraffe, human etc) is controlled by DNA

Nucleotides

Please draw

Nitrogenous

• Each base will only bond with one other specific base.
• Adenine (A)
• Thymine (T)
• Cytosine (C)
• Guanine (G)

Form a base pair.

DNA Structure

• Because of this complementary base pairing, the order of the bases in one strand determines the order of the bases in the other strand.

How is DNA Read? Replication

• To crack the genetic code found in DNA we need to look at the sequence of bases.
• The bases are arranged in triplets called codons.

A G G - C T C - A A G - T C C - T A G

T C C - G A G - T T C - A G G - A T C

• A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein.
• Each unique gene has a unique sequence of bases.
• This unique sequence of bases will code for the production of a unique protein.
• It is these proteins and combination of proteins that give us a unique phenotype.

Write your summary. :)

Three dimensional structure of DNA

Aug 25, 2014

540 likes | 1.65k Views

Chapter 19 Nucleic Acids II. Three dimensional structure of DNA. A double helix has major groove and minor groove Within each groove base pairs are exposed and are accessible to interactions with other molecules DNA-binding proteins can use these interactions to “read” a specific sequence.

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• cells contain several kinds
• protein function
• complete unwinding
• pyrimidine rings
• long dna molecule
• solenoid structure

Presentation Transcript

Chapter 19 Nucleic Acids II Three dimensional structure of DNA • A double helix has major groove and minor groove • Within each groove base pairs are exposed and are accessible to interactions with other molecules • DNA-binding proteins can use these interactions to “read” a specific sequence • B-DNA is a right-handedhelix, diam. = 2.37nm • Rise (distance between stacked bases) =0.33nm • Pitch (distance to complete one turn) = 3.40 nm • 10.4 base pairs per turn

Weak Forces Stabilize the Double Helix • Hydrophobic effects. Burying purine and pyrimidine rings in the double helix interior • (2) Stacking interactions. Stacked base pairs form van der Waals contacts (3) Hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding between base pairs. (4) Charge-charge interactions. Electrostatic repulsion of negatively charged phosphate groups is decreased by cations (e.g. Mg2+) and cationic proteins

Weak Forces Stabilize the Double Helix (1) Hydrophobic effects. Burying purine and pyrimidine rings in the double helix interior (2) Stacking interactions. Stacked base pairs form van der Waals contacts (3) Hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding between base pairs. (4) Charge-charge interactions. Electrostatic repulsion of negatively charged phosphate groups is decreased by cations (e.g. Mg2+) and cationic proteins ds DNA predominates in vivo Double-stranded DNA is thermodynamically more stable than the separated strands (under physiological conditions)

Denaturation of DNA Denaturation - Complete unwinding and separation of the 2 strands of DNA …….(only in vitro) Heat or chaotropic agents (e.g. urea) can denature DNA Local unwinding can occur in vivo Double-stranded (DS) DNA (pH 7.0), absorbance max 260nm Denatured DNA absorbs 12% -40% more than DS DNA Allows easy measurement of ‘DNA melting’

Heat denaturation of DNA • Melting point (Tm) - temperature at which 1/2 of the DNA has become single stranded • Meltingcurves can be followed at Abs260nm cooperative

DNA Can Be Supercoiled Overwound or underwound DNA….compensates by supercoiling to restore 10.4 base pairs per turn of helix Over/under winding DNA (stress) can be caused by various ‘activities’ Transcription local unwinding of dsDNA and helical stress Replication

Topoisomerase Overwound or underwound DNA….compensates by supercoiling to restore 10.4 base pairs per turn of helix Topoisomerases - enzymes that can alter the topology of DNA helixes by:(1) Cleaving one or both DNA strands(2) Unwinding or overwinding the double helix by rotating the strands(3) Rejoining ends to create (or remove) supercoils

Cells Contain Several Kinds of RNA Four major classes • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) - an integral part of ribosomes, accounts for ~80% of RNA in cells • Transfer RNA (tRNA) - carry activated amino acids to ribosomes for polypeptide synthesis (small molecules 73-95 nucleotides long) • Messenger RNA (mRNA) - carry sequence information to the translation complex • Small RNA - have catalytic activity or associate with proteins to enhance activity

Cells Contain Several Kinds of RNA Four major classes 1 mRNA Protein DNA 4 2 3 RNA Ribosomal RNA tRNA and Non-coding 80% of RNA in cell Small RNAs catalytic (Junk DNA) antisense RNA interference Guide RNA Essential for protein function

DNA Is Packaged in Chromatin in Eukaryotic Cells How to pack long DNA molecule (genome) into nucleus • Chromatin - DNA plus various proteins that package the DNA in a more compact form • The packing ratio: difference between the length of the metaphase DNA chromosome and the extended B form of DNA is 8000-fold

Active and silent chromatin

Regulation of gene expression mRNA Protein DNA Insulin receptor Hb amalase Liver cell RBC Cheek cell

Regulation of gene expression mRNA Protein DNA Insulin receptor Hb amalase X X euchromatin heterochromatin Liver cell RBC Cheek cell

Nucleosomes • Histones - the major proteins of chromatin • Eukaryotes contain five small, basic histone proteins containing many lysines and arginines: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 • Positively charged histones bind to negatively-charged sugar-phosphates of DNA Histone-DNA complex: nucleosome Extended Chromatin Beads-on-a-string

Nucleosomes • Histones - the major proteins of chromatin • Eukaryotes contain five small, basic histone proteins containing many lysines and arginines: H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4 • Positively charged histones bind to negatively-charged sugar-phosphates of DNA • Nucleosome “beads” are DNA-histone complexes on a “string” of double-stranded DNA • Each nucleosome is composed of: • Histone H1(1 molecule) • Histones H2A, H2B, H3, H4 (2 molecules each) • ~200 bp of DNA

Diagram of nucleosome structure • Each nucleosome is composed of: • Histone H1(1 molecule) • Histones H2A, H2B, H3, H4 (2 molecules each) • ~200 bp of DNA +charge groove • Packaging of DNA in nucleosomes reduces DNA length ~tenfold

30 nm Chromatin Fiber • DNA is packaged further by coiling of the “beads-on-a-string” into a solenoid structure. • Achieves another fourfold reduction in chromosome length. (4 X 10 = 40 fold) • Model of the 30nm chromatin fiber shown as a solenoid or helix formed by individual nucleosomes • Nucleosomes associate through contacts between adjacent histone H1 molecules

protein scaffolds in chromatin Histones have been Removed to visualize scaffolds Loops attached to scaffold Protein scaffold • Chromatin fibers attach to scaffolds • Holds DNA fibers in large loops • This accounts for an additional 200-fold condensation in DNA length. (200 X 40 = 8000 fold)

4x 200x 10x

Nucleases and Hydrolysis of Nucleic Acids • Nucleases - hydrolyze phosphodiester bondsRNases (RNA substrates)DNases (DNA substrates) • Exonucleases start at the end of a chain • Endonucleases hydrolyze sites within a chain Required for synthesis/repair of DNA synthesis/degradation of RNA May cleave either the 3’- or the 5’- ester bond of a 3’-5’ phosphodiester linkage

OH group of RNA OH Can form H-bonds in RNA mol Can participate in certain chemical rxns OH OH Diff chemical reactivity than DNA OH

Alkaline Hydrolysis of RNA Unstable incubation with NaOH 2’ OH acts as a catalyst Intramolecular transesterification Demonstrates the diff in chem Reactivity of DNA vrs RNA Due to 2’ OH

RNase A Uses three fundamental catalytic mechanisms: Proximity effect: position phosphodiester between 2 His residues Acid-base catalysis: (His-119 and His-12) Transition state stabilized (by Lys-41)

Restriction Endonucleases Enzymes that recognize specific DNA sequences and cut both strands Substrate for EcoR1 Palindromic seq Bacteria can restrict the invasion of foreign (bacteriophage) DNA protect their own DNA by covalent modification of bases at the restriction site (e.g. methylation) Bacteria contain restriction enzymes and methylases

Bacteria can restrict the invasion of foreign (bacteriophage) DNA Restriction Endonucleases

Methylation and restriction at the EcoR1 site Palindromic seq Foreign DNA Unmethylated Substrate for EcoR1

Restriction Endonucleases • Type I - catalyze both the methylationof host DNA and cleavageof unmethylatedDNA at a specific recognition sequence • Type II - cleave double-stranded DNA only, at or near an unmethylated recognition sequence • More than 200 type I and type II enzymes are known • Most recognize “palindromic sequences” (read the same in either direction)

GGGCCC CCCGGG GGGCC C C CCGGG

EcoR1 restriction enzyme Dimerizes and binds one face Makes base contacts in major groove

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