Introduce the topic.
Provide background information.
Present the thesis statement or main argument.
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An argumentative essay presents a specific claim or argument and supports it with evidence and reasoning. Here’s an outline for an argumentative essay, along with examples for each section: 3
1. Introduction :
Example: “Did you know that plastic pollution is threatening marine life at an alarming rate?”
Example: “Plastic pollution has become a global environmental concern, with millions of tons of plastic waste entering our oceans yearly.”
Example: “We must take immediate action to reduce plastic usage and implement more sustainable alternatives to protect our marine ecosystem.”
2. Body Paragraphs :
Example: “The first step towards addressing the plastic pollution crisis is reducing single-use plastic consumption.”
Example: “Research shows that plastic straws alone contribute to millions of tons of plastic waste annually, and many marine animals suffer from ingestion or entanglement.”
Example: “Some argue that banning plastic straws is inconvenient for consumers, but the long-term environmental benefits far outweigh the temporary inconvenience.”
Example: “Having addressed the issue of single-use plastics, the focus must now shift to promoting sustainable alternatives.”
3. Counterargument Paragraph :
Example: “While some may argue that individual actions cannot significantly impact global plastic pollution, the cumulative effect of collective efforts must be considered.”
Example: “However, individual actions, when multiplied across millions of people, can substantially reduce plastic waste. Small changes in behavior, such as using reusable bags and containers, can have a significant positive impact.”
4. Conclusion :
Example: “In conclusion, adopting sustainable practices and reducing single-use plastic is crucial for preserving our oceans and marine life.”
Example: “It is our responsibility to make environmentally conscious choices and advocate for policies that prioritize the health of our planet. By collectively embracing sustainable alternatives, we can contribute to a cleaner and healthier future.”
A claim is a statement or proposition a writer puts forward with evidence to persuade the reader. 4 Here are some common types of argument claims, along with examples:
Understanding these argument claims can help writers construct more persuasive and well-supported arguments tailored to the specific nature of the claim.
If you’re wondering how to start an argumentative essay, here’s a step-by-step guide to help you with the argumentative essay format and writing process.
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Here are eight strategies to craft a compelling argumentative essay:
Let’s consider a sample of argumentative essay on how social media enhances connectivity:
In the digital age, social media has emerged as a powerful tool that transcends geographical boundaries, connecting individuals from diverse backgrounds and providing a platform for an array of voices to be heard. While critics argue that social media fosters division and amplifies negativity, it is essential to recognize the positive aspects of this digital revolution and how it enhances connectivity by providing a platform for diverse voices to flourish. One of the primary benefits of social media is its ability to facilitate instant communication and connection across the globe. Platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram break down geographical barriers, enabling people to establish and maintain relationships regardless of physical location and fostering a sense of global community. Furthermore, social media has transformed how people stay connected with friends and family. Whether separated by miles or time zones, social media ensures that relationships remain dynamic and relevant, contributing to a more interconnected world. Moreover, social media has played a pivotal role in giving voice to social justice movements and marginalized communities. Movements such as #BlackLivesMatter, #MeToo, and #ClimateStrike have gained momentum through social media, allowing individuals to share their stories and advocate for change on a global scale. This digital activism can shape public opinion and hold institutions accountable. Social media platforms provide a dynamic space for open dialogue and discourse. Users can engage in discussions, share information, and challenge each other’s perspectives, fostering a culture of critical thinking. This open exchange of ideas contributes to a more informed and enlightened society where individuals can broaden their horizons and develop a nuanced understanding of complex issues. While criticisms of social media abound, it is crucial to recognize its positive impact on connectivity and the amplification of diverse voices. Social media transcends physical and cultural barriers, connecting people across the globe and providing a platform for marginalized voices to be heard. By fostering open dialogue and facilitating the exchange of ideas, social media contributes to a more interconnected and empowered society. Embracing the positive aspects of social media allows us to harness its potential for positive change and collective growth.
Writing a winning argumentative essay not only showcases your ability to critically analyze a topic but also demonstrates your skill in persuasively presenting your stance backed by evidence. Achieving this level of writing excellence can be time-consuming. This is where Paperpal, your AI academic writing assistant, steps in to revolutionize the way you approach argumentative essays. Here’s a step-by-step guide on how to use Paperpal to write your essay:
Paperpal not only simplifies the essay writing process but also ensures your argumentative essay is persuasive, well-structured, and academically rigorous. Sign up today and transform how you write argumentative essays.
The length of an argumentative essay can vary, but it typically falls within the range of 1,000 to 2,500 words. However, the specific requirements may depend on the guidelines provided.
You might write an argumentative essay when: 1. You want to convince others of the validity of your position. 2. There is a controversial or debatable issue that requires discussion. 3. You need to present evidence and logical reasoning to support your claims. 4. You want to explore and critically analyze different perspectives on a topic.
Argumentative Essay: Purpose : An argumentative essay aims to persuade the reader to accept or agree with a specific point of view or argument. Structure : It follows a clear structure with an introduction, thesis statement, body paragraphs presenting arguments and evidence, counterarguments and refutations, and a conclusion. Tone : The tone is formal and relies on logical reasoning, evidence, and critical analysis. Narrative/Descriptive Essay: Purpose : These aim to tell a story or describe an experience, while a descriptive essay focuses on creating a vivid picture of a person, place, or thing. Structure : They may have a more flexible structure. They often include an engaging introduction, a well-developed body that builds the story or description, and a conclusion. Tone : The tone is more personal and expressive to evoke emotions or provide sensory details.
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4-minute read
An argumentative essay is a structured, compelling piece of writing where an author clearly defines their stance on a specific topic. This is a very popular style of writing assigned to students at schools, colleges, and universities. Learn the steps to researching, structuring, and writing an effective argumentative essay below.
To effectively achieve its purpose, an argumentative essay must contain:
● A concise thesis statement that introduces readers to the central argument of the essay
● A clear, logical, argument that engages readers
● Ample research and evidence that supports your argument
1. classical.
● Clearly present the central argument.
● Outline your opinion.
● Provide enough evidence to support your theory.
● State your claim.
● Supply the evidence for your stance.
● Explain how these findings support the argument.
● Include and discuss any limitations of your belief.
● Explain the opposing stance of your argument.
● Discuss the problems with adopting this viewpoint.
● Offer your position on the matter.
● Provide reasons for why yours is the more beneficial stance.
● Include a potential compromise for the topic at hand.
● Introduce your topic in a bold, direct, and engaging manner to captivate your readers and encourage them to keep reading.
● Provide sufficient evidence to justify your argument and convince readers to adopt this point of view.
● Consider, include, and fairly present all sides of the topic.
● Structure your argument in a clear, logical manner that helps your readers to understand your thought process.
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● Discuss any counterarguments that might be posed.
● Use persuasive writing that’s appropriate for your target audience and motivates them to agree with you.
Follow these basic steps to write a powerful and meaningful argumentative essay :
If you’ve already been given a topic to write about, pick a stance that resonates deeply with you. This will shine through in your writing, make the research process easier, and positively influence the outcome of your argument.
To write an emotive argumentative essay , finding enough research to support your theory is a must. You’ll need solid evidence to convince readers to agree with your take on the matter. You’ll also need to logically organize the research so that it naturally convinces readers of your viewpoint and leaves no room for questioning.
A good structure to ensure a well-written and effective argumentative essay includes:
● Introduce your topic.
● Offer background information on the claim.
● Discuss the evidence you’ll present to support your argument.
● State your thesis statement, a one-to-two sentence summary of your claim.
● This is the section where you’ll develop and expand on your argument.
● It should be split into three or four coherent paragraphs, with each one presenting its own idea.
● Start each paragraph with a topic sentence that indicates why readers should adopt your belief or stance.
● Include your research, statistics, citations, and other supporting evidence.
● Discuss opposing viewpoints and why they’re invalid.
● This part typically consists of one paragraph.
● Summarize your research and the findings that were presented.
● Emphasize your initial thesis statement.
● Persuade readers to agree with your stance.
We certainly hope that you feel inspired to use these tips when writing your next argumentative essay . And, if you’re currently elbow-deep in writing one, consider submitting a free sample to us once it’s completed. Our expert team of editors can help ensure that it’s concise, error-free, and effective!
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Interactive Technology and Smart Education
ISSN : 1741-5659
Article publication date: 2 August 2021
Issue publication date: 4 October 2021
Following the rapid shift to online learning due to COVID-19, this paper aims to compare the relative efficacy of face-to-face and online university teaching methods.
A scoping review was conducted to examine the learning outcomes within and between online and face-to-face (F2F) university teaching programmes.
Although previous research has supported a “no significant difference” position, the review of 91 comparative studies during 2000–2020 identified 37 (41%) which found online teaching was associated with better learning outcomes, 17 (18%) which favoured F2F and 37 (41%) reporting no significant difference. Purpose-developed online content which supports “student-led” enquiry and cognitive challenge were cited as factors supporting better learning outcomes.
This study adopts a pre-defined methodology in reviewing literature which ensures rigour in identifying relevant studies. The large sample of studies ( n = 91) supported the comparison of discrete learning modes although high variability in key concepts and outcome variables made it difficult to directly compare some studies. A lack of methodological rigour was observed in some studies.
As a result of COVID-19, online university teaching has become the “new normal” but also re-focussed questions regarding its efficacy. The weight of evidence from this review is that online learning is at least as effective and often better than, F2F modalities in supporting learning outcomes, albeit these differences are often modest. The findings raise questions about the presumed benefits of F2F learning and complicate the case for a return to physical classrooms during the pandemic and beyond.
Stevens, G.J. , Bienz, T. , Wali, N. , Condie, J. and Schismenos, S. (2021), "Online university education is the new normal: but is face-to-face better?", Interactive Technology and Smart Education , Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 278-297. https://doi.org/10.1108/ITSE-08-2020-0181
Emerald Publishing Limited
Copyright © 2021, Garry John Stevens, Tobias Bienz, Nidhi Wali, Jenna Condie and Spyros Schismenos.
Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode
Rapid technological developments in digital education have seen wide-spread adoption of blended and fully online content across a range of educational institutions, including universities. Advocates of online learning (OL) cite a range of key advantages including greater access, cost-effectiveness and the creation of a democratised “community of learners” able to operate in real-time and asynchronous modes ( Beishuizen, 2008 ; Hass and Joseph, 2018 ). In 2020, the inherent agility of OL came into sharp focus with the international impacts of Covid-19. As a result of the pandemic and almost overnight, online university teaching has become the “new normal”. This rapid shift supported critical business-continuity in the sector, but some argued that it largely completed and was enabled by, the full structural integration of digital education that had been proceeding for decades ( Brown and Duguid, 1996 ; Hiltz and Turoff, 2005 ; Kaplan and Haenlein, 2016 ). While blended modes are quite commonplace in countries such as Australia ( Crawford and Jenkins, 2017 ), the UK ( Adekola et al. , 2017 ), Italy ( Previtali and Scarozza, 2019 ) and Singapore ( Jones and Sharma, 2019 ), many educators and higher education institutions faced both full online delivery, as well as the pedagogical implications of teaching digitally for the first time ( Dhawan, 2020 ). A raft of questions comes to the fore. Are some educators still “resistant” ( Blin and Munro, 2008 ) to digital learning in the contexts of a pandemic? When Covid-19 is still in circulation, why are there calls and initiatives to get students and staff back to campus and physical classrooms? What is the current evidence-base in support of OL? Are its learning outcomes broadly equivalent to face-to-face (F2F) modes and, if so, what is the case for a post-Covid return to F2F teaching?
A long-standing criticism of OL is that it cannot replace F2F modes because it lacks the capacity for the communicative processes that occur with physical presence; processes through which the cognitive, meta-cognitive and social/interactive aspects of learning optimally occur ( Francescato et al. , 2006 ). Learning is situational and materially embedded in the context of the classroom and being physically co-present to learn with fellow students and teaching staff ( Taylor, 2013 ). This is not to say that OL is not situated; it also takes place somewhere and has a physicality and materiality to it. While such presence appears important, it has also been argued that F2F teaching frequently defaults to a “teacher-centred” approach that promotes a passive, disengaged relationship between students and educational content; a factor contributing to poor comprehension and information retention ( Garrison and Cleveland-Innes, 2005 ). There is growing evidence that well-structured online courses which promote “active learning” (characterised by group problem-solving requiring higher-order thinking, task completion and reflection) and have high perceived levels of tutor leadership (or “presence”), achieve learning outcomes that are equivalent to or better than, those achieved via F2F teaching ( Cleveland-Innes and Emes, 2005 ; Garrison and Cleveland-Innes, 2005 ; McLaughlin et al. , 2013 ; Thomas and Thorpe, 2019 ). A comprehensive review of the history of online teaching and learning is beyond the scope of this paper, however, we highlight key aspects of the debate and evidence regarding the relative efficacy of F2F and online modalities, as well as “blended” approaches and their potential to optimise learning outcomes.
Since the early 1990s, much of the consideration regarding the comparative efficacy of digital education has been framed around a wider controversy often referred to as the “Clark/Kozma debate”. Clark’s original meta-analysis on the influence of media on learning ( Clark, 1983 ) led him to conclude that media do not influence learning outcomes under any circumstances. In what came to be known as the “no significant difference” position, Clark proposed that researchers should cease exploring the relationship between media and learning, unless they could also provide substantive theory as to why media-specific differences exist ( Clark , 1983, 1994 ). The debate “proper” commenced in 1991 when Kozma outlined a learner “interaction” theory which proposed a synergistic relationship between media, content and the learner ( Kozma , 1991, 1994 ). He argued that different media have distinct symbolic/relational systems and processing, that may both compliment an individual learner and provide effective learning experiences.
Kozma’s theory has been highly influential in framing the social/interactive theory behind blended learning and active learning approaches, including recent initiatives regarding online “community of inquiry” teacher/student collaborations to achieve educational outcomes ( Rubin et al. , 2013 ). Despite such developments, the evidence has remained largely inconclusive regarding any single media (i.e. primary F2F and OL formats) being capable of producing significantly better learning outcomes. While some studies have reported significantly poorer learning outcomes for online university courses ( Brown and Liedholm, 2002 ), such findings have been in the minority. Meta-analyses after 2000 examining learning outcomes ( Bernard et al. , 2004 ; Shachar and Neumann, 2003 ) typically concluded that modality, per se , was not a significant factor in learning outcomes; findings Clark drew upon to re-iterate his original claims ( Clark and Feldon, 2005 ; Clark, 2007 ). This position statement remains essentially unchanged ( Becker, 2010 ; Clark, 2014 ), despite some recent meta-analyses showing that university learning outcomes are generally better with OL modes ( Jayakumar et al. , 2015 ; Jurewitsch, 2012 ; Nguyen, 2015 ). Critics of this status-quo argued that Clark’s commentary reflected a lack of understanding regarding educational applications of “new media” and their educational applications (e.g. gaming platforms and social media) which may be found to provide qualitatively distinct outcomes ( Becker, 2010 ; Rideout et al. , 2010 ) and, many of the claimed “no difference” findings were drawn from studies with poor methodology (e.g. non-random selection, poor control of teacher/student variables and matching of content and contact hours) or which focus on aggregate-level outcomes (e.g. student course grades, tutor/student satisfaction) which may not identify process elements of specific media that are uniquely beneficial ( Francescato et al. , 2006 ; Garrison and Cleveland-Innes, 2005 ; Mullen, 2019 ).
More recent studies have tended to explore the factors associated with developing and delivering a student-centred curriculum that may be associated with optimal learning outcomes, irrespective of the primary teaching mode used. Educators are using digital technologies and new social media platforms to reconceptualise and reconstitute teacher-student relationships and extend learning conversations beyond the traditional classroom ( Condie et al. , 2018 ; Graham, 2014 ). Positioning higher education students as “colleagues in training” ( Condie et al. , 2018 , p. 14) and “students as producers” ( Hynes, 2018 ) is more possible with the affordances of the “participatory web” ( Costa, 2014 ) and within open digital educational practices ( Cronin, 2017 ). As such, earlier constructivist models of individual computer-assisted learning ( Crook, 1998 ) have been relegated in favour of cooperative learning based on social learning theory. These models posit that highly effective learning occurs through interactive work with others and shared task completion and reflection.
Cleveland-Innes and Emes (2005) found that social and academic interaction were critical factors in achieving quality educational outcomes, irrespective of whether the learning environments were F2F or online. However, related research ( Garrison and Cleveland-Innes, 2005 ) has shown interaction, per se , is not sufficient to achieve the kind of critical discourse (and related critical thinking) needed to achieve “deep learning” ( Biggs, 1998 ). Both student-student and tutor-student interactions are important in the creation of critical discourse. However, research indicates that the perceived structure and cohesion associated with the tutor role (often defined as teacher leadership or “presence”) is a stronger predictor of critical discourse and overall effectiveness of both OL and F2F teaching ( Hay et al. , 2004 ), but possibly a greater predictor in online environments ( Thomas and Thorpe, 2019 ; Wu and Hiltz, 2004 ). Educator presence, rapport and a sense of community and trust amongst learners are essential for effective digital learning experiences ( Lambrinidis, 2014 ; Ragusa and Crampton, 2018 ; Stone, 2017 ).
The aim of this review is to compare university learning modes, such that the substantive comparison is between fully online and F2F delivery. As such, our search is limited to studies involving a reasonably rigorous approach to comparing these modalities, that is, using an experimental or quasi-experimental design. Our research question is whether, based upon aggregate findings during the period 2000-2020, fully online or F2F learning modes are more effective in achieving commonly recognised learning outcomes such as test grades and course marks. In posing this comparison, we are mindful that digitised learning commonly blends these approaches, but our primary question goes to the matter of a possibly unique contribution of F2F modes and how this may inform future use of this format, particularly in a post-Covid environment.
This review adopts a scoping review methodology as outlined by Arksey and O’Malley (2005) . The scoping method follows a structured approach to map and presents a descriptive or summative overview of the literature on a topic. This method has been adopted across disciplines and is being increasingly recognised as an effective method when compared to a literature review ( Pham et al. , 2014 ). The focus of this review was to use existing data sources to address our research question, i.e. secondary data sources and did not include any primary data. The scoping process has four stages: identifying the research question; identifying relevant studies; study selection and charting the data and collating, summarizing and reporting the results. This process allows transparency and clarity of data collection, study selection and the collating of results.
There are a plethora of terms used to refer to these respective teaching modalities, as well as those which combine their use. Throughout this paper, we use the following standard terms to delineate teaching modes and roles; traditional, F2F and OL; combined F2F/OL (“blended” but also “flipped” when indicated); and teaching practitioners (“tutors” or “instructors”). We use the term OL in preference to e-learning and digitised learning as the latter is less specific to mode and often applied to blended formats. The terms “learning” and “teaching” are typically used as presented by the authors. Unless otherwise specified, “course” refers to a single unit of study (e.g. one-semester Introduction to Sociology unit).
The review examined the outcomes and relative efficacy of online (web-based) and F2F university teaching.
Google Scholar was used as the primary search engine with advanced search options. Google Scholar is multidisciplinary and has broad coverage across health, social science and education. The education-specific database of the Education Resources Information Centre (ERIC) was then used to identify any education-related studies that could have been missed in the primary search via Google Scholar.
Search items were restricted to articles that were: journal articles, published research dissertations and reports; published in the English language; published between 2000 and 2020; and based on key terms. The stated inclusion criteria allowed us to limit the search output to a manageable number of relevant items. This was particularly important regarding the restriction to “title search” only, as earlier searches of full-text articles produced a large number of articles (in the thousands).
Primary search involved keywords combination: “online” x “face to face” x “learning” x “comparison”. Key synonyms were also used in a number of other combinations, notably: “eLearning”, “internet”, “web-based”, “teaching”, “traditional” (i.e. teaching), “experiment”, “outcomes”, “review” (to identify relevant descriptive/systematic reviews and meta-analyses). The selected search terms also reflect the review requirement which involves an experimental design or other direct comparisons of the relative learning outcomes of OL and F2F teaching.
The scoping review included studies that were within the parameters of our enquiry, with all other articles being excluded. These could be studies that did not directly compare teaching modalities; where the teaching modalities were unclear or did not provide a substantive comparison of the two modalities; or where the study predominantly involved non-tertiary students (e.g. high school students). Only journal articles, published research dissertations and reports were included. All other document types including books, non-empirical book chapters, articles that could not be found/opened and studies in a language other than English were excluded.
Our review was conducted in two stages; a preliminary search followed by a combined analysis. The preliminary search yielded 76 studies which, after review, were reduced to 28 relevant items ( Table 1 ). These 28 studies included 1 scoping review and 6 meta-analyses, which constituted a substantial number of individual studies that warranted more detailed review and the inclusion of those that met our study criteria. This combined analysis found a total of 131 studies for review. A number of studies were then excluded for these reasons; published before the year 2000 (4 studies), insufficient information in the meta-analysis to draw clear determinations or the individual paper was not accessible (10 studies), duplicates (6 studies) and outside the scope of this study such as non-university population (1 study) or not directly comparing primary OL and F2F conditions (e.g. using blended learning as a primary condition (19 studies). For the purposes of this analysis, a meta-analysis or scoping review was counted as a separate study/finding (i.e. 7 studies) in addition to the studies it contained and which met out criteria. The combined analysis yielded a final sample of 91 individual studies for review ( Table 2 ).
This review narrates the findings from the included studies using an approach consistent with Snilstveit et al. (2012) . The following method was used for collating and reporting the results. For individual studies, the results of statistical analyses and/or author direct statements were used to determine whether learning outcomes favoured OL or F2F or no significant difference was observed. To determine if an individual study within a meta-analysis favoured one mode, the effect sizes (g) were used (i.e. positive effect sizes were counted in favour of OL and negative in favour of F2F). Direct statements by the meta-analysis authors were also used. With regard to the outcome measures used to assess university student learning, the most recognised performance metrics used in meta-analyses are the scores of standardised tests, grade point average (GPA) or overall course grade ( Jayakumar et al. , 2015 ; Jurewitsch, 2012 ). Other measures assess specific learning processes such as cognitive/metacognitive processes ( Kurt and Gürcan, 2010 ) and stress adaptation ( San Jose and Kelleher, 2009 ). A range of other student self-report measures are also used such as satisfaction, confidence, knowledge and performance. Some authors of meta-analyses state that finding and qualifying performance measures between studies can be an issue ( Jayakumar et al. , 2015 ; Jurewitsch, 2012 ; Nguyen, 2015 ). Table 2 details the range of learning outcomes identified in these studies. While the meta-analyses include studies published in 2000–2015 there are several individual studies published between 2015 and 2020 that are included in this study, therefore expanding the time-horizon of previous research.
The combined analysis reviewed individual study reports, as well as the constituent individual studies within relevant meta-analyses and the scoping review. This identified an initial pool of 131 studies. This was reduced to a final sample of 91 studies, which met our inclusion criteria. From these, a total of 37 studies (41%) found online teaching was associated with better student learning outcomes, 17 studies (18%) reported better outcomes with F2F and 37studies (41%) found no significant differences ( Table 2 ). Summary findings from these respective categories are detailed below, including the breakdown of results within the composite studies.
Addis (2009) and Callister and Love (2016) found that F2F Elementary Education students performed better. The Addis (2009) study found gains in student learning were pronounced in each condition, but the F2F group significantly outperformed the online group on post-test scores due to easier collaboration in the F2F setting and OL students taking longer to get accustomed to the new mode. Callister and Love (2016) compared four master’s level Negotiation classes at two universities but taught by the same professor. Test scores indicated that F2F learners achieved higher negotiation outcomes than online learners. The researchers attributed this to increased instructor interaction and reduced hostility in the F2F settings, even when using the same technology (Google Chat).
Bond and Peterson (2004) found that F2F learners displayed better mastery of subject matter. The study assessed the quality of the problem-based learning (PBL) unit (for teaching delivery) based on several indices. The subjects of the study were university students in an Instructional Planning class. The study authors concluded that the on-campus group selected a wider variety of instructional materials, planned more detailed instruction, used more pedagogical terminology and placed a higher value on planning. They argued that observing the teacher and emulating the teacher’s preparation methods led to these differences in performance. Both groups were similar in problem selection, length of unit, number of materials, organisation of student groups and integration of technology. McKenzie (2013) found that medical students in F2F classes gave significantly higher ratings to teaching staff and reported greater knowledge attainment, which was supported by higher test scores. The researchers suggested these differences may have been due to both technical limitations with the online version of the course (which constrained the complexity of online activity) and the greater complexity and feedback opportunities that were permitted within the F2F course. Despite this both groups reported similar levels of confidence.
San Jose and Kelleher (2009) set up an experimental comparison based on the ecoshock index, a 12-item measure of stress adaptation to new learning environments, developed and tested to measure differences in university students’ responses toF2F and OL learning ecologies. They found that online students reported greater adaptive stress (ecoshock). The index yielded promising internal reliability scores in pilot testing and experimental conditions. Construct validity was supported with evidence from within-subjects experimental comparisons (N = 49) showing that ecoshock was significantly higher online compared to F2F conditions, as the authors had predicted. Also as predicted, ecoshock correlated negatively with an 8-item index of affective learning, which was found to be greater in F2F conditions than OL conditions. While such factors could potentially undermine learning outcomes(the authors, citing Fontaine, 2000 ), this report does not provide information as to whether higher reported adaptive stressor lower affective learning was associated with poorer performance.
In addition to these individual studies, the dis-aggregation of the meta-analyses produced 12 additional findings that met our inclusion criteria and reported results favouring F2F delivery; Lack (2013 : 1 study), Means et al. (2009 : 7 studies), Nguyen (2015 : 2 studies) and Voutilainen et al. (2017 : 2 studies).In total, 17/91 studies (18%)found that OL was the more effective delivery mode.
Heckman and Annabi (2005) found that asynchronous learning networks (ALN) executed through a web-based application generate high levels of cognitive activity equal to and in some cases superior to, the cognitive processes in the F2F classroom. The study also found that student-to-student interactions contain a greater proportion of high-level cognitive indicators than do student-to-teacher interactions. These cognitive indicators are grouped on different hierarchical levels corresponding to the respective level of cognitive activity. These commence with exploration and analysis and culminate with integration as the highest level of activity. Similarly, Williams and Castro (2010) investigated teams of organisational behaviour students about their perceived team performance and concluded that relationships in online teams were better. The authors found that “the flexibility provided by the online environment might allow for more ongoing learning and more frequent exchanges” (p. 141) than in F2F contexts. Team setting moderated the relationship that member teamwork orientation and member social interaction had on individual team-source learning; the relationships were stronger in online teams.
Raynauld (2006) investigated an Economic Policy and a Finance course where the author found that online students perform better (in terms of final grade) in Economic Policy, but there are no significant differences in Finance. While the online version of the Economic Policy course was well-tailored towards the needs of online students, it was the first time that the Finance course was conducted through an online format. This led the authors to propose that the type of course, the setup of the learning environment and the assessment decisions influence the success of online courses.
The scoping review of Nguyen (2015) found online delivery to be at least as effective as F2F delivery. From the 22 constituent studies, 5 met the inclusion criteria for this scoping review, of which 2 favoured OL, 2 favoured F2F and 1 found no significant differences. As the overall finding of the meta-analysis was also in favour of OL, it is categorised as an OL finding within our combined analysis. The report author offered this assessment, “Taken as a whole, there is robust evidence to suggest online learning is generally at least as effective as the traditional format” (p. 309).
The meta-analysis of Jayakumar et al. (2015) found that online students performed better. From the 38 constituent studies, only 3 met the inclusion criteria for this scoping review and all were in favour of OL. Jurewitsch (2012) drew a similar conclusion in his meta-analysis and found that online students performed better in problem-based learning. From the 5 constituent studies, only 3 could be located and accessed and all of them favoured OL. Overall effect size was found to be slightly in favour of online problem-based learning in terms of student performance outcomes (test scores).
The dis-aggregation of the other meta-analyses produced 24 findings that met inclusion criteria and supported OL delivery; Lack (2013 : 3 studies), Means et al. (2009 : 16 studies), McCutcheon et al. (2014 : 2 studies) and Voutilainen et al. (2017 : 2 studies).In total, 37/91 studies (41%)found that OL was more effective than F2F delivery.
In total, 11 studies, which used standard student performance metrics(e.g. test mark, final grade) found that there were no significant differences between F2F and OL modes ( Cavanaugh and Jacquemin, 2015 ; Driscoll et al. , 2012 ; Ghonsooly and Seyyedrezaie, 2014 ; Herman and Banister, 2007 ; Horspool and Yang, 2010 ; Johnson et al. ,2000 ; Pilbeam and Barrus, 2010 ; Rosell-Aguilar, 2006 ; Sussman and Dutter, 2010 ; Woolsey, 2013 ; Yen et al. , 2018 ).
Cavanaugh and Jacquemin (2015) examined a teaching database with information from 140,444 students enrolled across 6,012 university courses and taught by over 100 faculty members between 2010 and 2013. Notable findings were that students with higher GPAs perform even better in online courses or alternatively, struggling students perform worse when taking courses in an online format compared to a F2F format. Driscoll et al. (2012) conducted a quasi-experimental study of introductory Sociology students and found that differences in student performance between the two modes may be due to a selection effect. Herman and Banister (2007) found no difference in learning outcomes, post-graduate Education students. Johnson et al. (2000) found a similar result for students in a Human Resources course and noted that while those in F2F courses held slightly more positive perceptions about their tutors this did not affect course grades. Pilbeam and Barrus (2010) found that while grades in Computer Literacy courses varied little between modes the percentage of “A” grades were higher in F2F.
Nine studies used outcome measures, which assessed learning processes, mode-related adaptation,and a range of subjective appraisals of performance or engagement ( Driscoll et al. , 2012 ; Ghonsooly and Seyyedrezaie, 2014 ; Groves et al. , 2014 ; Horspool et al. , 2010; Johnson et al. , 2000 ; Kurt and Gürcan, 2010 ; Rosell-Aguilar, 2006 ; Woolsey, 2013 ; Yen et al. , 2018 ).
Kurt and Gürcan (2010) and Ghonsooly and Seyyedrezaie (2014) found that there were no significant differences in student learning strategies between F2F and OL. Kurt and Gürcan (2010) investigated the relationship of undergraduate students’ success with learning strategies and computer anxiety. No significant difference regarding cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies (assessed with separate scales developed by Namlu (2005) ) was found. However, the authors did find average scores for learning anxiety were significantly lower in the F2F instruction group. Ghonsooly and Seyyedrezaie (2014) found that there were no significant differences between the two groups of learners regarding preferences for language learning strategies and reading comprehension. The study measured the outcome of 200 language students with a 50-item translated version of the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning and a test of reading comprehension.
Rosell-Aguilar (2006) found that there were few differences between F2F and OL. The subjects were undergraduate students in a language course. The study found that there were not many differences between online andF2F learners but there are differences in course marks; 10% moreF2F learners achieved a distinction than online learners. Online learners expressed less intention to miss tutorials than theirF2F counterparts. However, more online learners never attended at all. There was a higher number of students who wished to switch from online to F2F rather than vice-versa suggesting a quarter of the online students did not have a good enough experience with the online tuition to wish to continue using the medium. In this and several other studies, it was noted that the students voiced a preference for F2F tuition but this statement was often qualified by stating that the quality of the online course was lacking (often because it was the first time the course was offered via an OL format). Groves et al. (2014) found that there were no significant differences in spiritual awareness between F2F and OL. The primary sample was health-care students and the study concluded that such awareness was achieved independently of the mode of course delivery.
The meta-analysis of McCutcheon et al. (2014) found no significant difference in nursing student performance measures examined across 19studies. Five of these met our inclusion criteria, of which 3 found no significant differences and 2 supported OL. The authors mention that the variation of the intervention made comparison difficult and that there is a clear need for well-structured and controlled research. Notably, the combined evidence suggests that online learning for teaching clinical skills is no less effective than traditional means. At the same time, this review highlights a broader lack of available evidence on the implementation of OL to teaching clinical skills in undergraduate nurse education and the need for further research in this area.
Means et al. (2009) is the largest available meta-analyses and determined that there were no significant differences between teaching modes. It includes 27 studies across a range of courses, which directly compared F2F vs OL conditions and found a small but non-significant effect in favour of OL modes (a mean effect of +0.05 and p = 0.46) This led the authors to conclude that “instruction conducted entirely online is as effective as classroom instruction but no better” (p. 18) Amongst these 27 studies 23 met our inclusion criteria of which 16 favoured OL and 7 supported F2F.
The two remaining meta-analyses were unable to draw a clear conclusion from the available data. Lack (2013) concluded that due to the difficulty of drawing on comparable results between the studies, the overall result of the study was unclear. However, of the 30 included studies, 20 met the inclusion criteria of the current review and did draw a clear finding. Amongst this group 16 found no significant differences, 3 favoured OL and 1 supported F2F. Voutilainen (2017) investigated 9 health-care studies of which 4 met the inclusion criteria of this scoping review. The review indicated that 2 studies supported OL and 2 studies supported F2F. The meta-analysis resulted in the weighted mean of 5.24 (0.13-10.3, CI) on a 0–100 scale, indicating that e-learning improved the knowledge/skill scores 5.24 points more than conventional learning, on average. However, as the range of the weighted mean was wide (−11.2 to 21.7), the authors concluded that generalisations could not be drawn. The authors of both meta-analyses indicated that the various studies differed substantially and that the results were too situational to make claims as to generalisability.
The dis-aggregation of the one remaining met-analysis in this category found a single study, which observed no significant difference ( Nguyen, 2015 ; 1 study). The combined analysis found 37/91 studies (41%) in which no significant differences were observed between the two teaching modes.
The primary focus of our review was to determine, based on the weight of evidence over the past two decades, whether F2F or online teaching modalities provide greater efficacy regarding university learning outcomes or whether the “no significant difference” position ( Clark , 2007, 2014 ) continues to reflect their relative status. Our combined analysis provided a clear answer to our research question. From the 91 identified studies which directly compared these two teaching modes, 37 (41%) found online teaching was associated with better learning outcomes, 17 (18%) favoured F2F teaching and 37 studies (41%) found no significant differences. Following the early “debate” of Clark (1983) and Kozma (1991) and more recent findings that modality, per se , is not a significant factor in learning outcomes ( Bernard et al. , 2004 ; Clark, 2007 ; Shachar and Neumann, 2003 ) the current data indicate that, in aggregate terms, online modalities are producing better learning outcomes for university students. Also consistent with the original thesis of Kozma (1991) are recent findings that the better outcomes associated with online learning are possibly due to the qualitatively different relationship that appears to develop between this media, the learning content and the learner ( Cavanaugh and Jacquemin, 2015 ; Heckman and Annabi, 2005 ; Jurewitsch, 2012 ; Nguyen, 2015 ; Williams and Castro, 2010 ).
If online university education appears to provide consistently better learning outcomes than F2F approaches, what factors may contribute to this difference? There is some evidence that OL and the working environments that it creates enable higher levels of cognitive activity which can lead to better performance. Heckman and Annabi (2005) found that student-to-student interactions foster higher cognitive activity and that students assume some parts of the teacher role in OL modes. Small group learning (e.g. “break-out” groups, team tasks) may afford a greater comfort in learning from peers, particularly as they are often distinctly “separate” spaces in the OL environment. This may allow higher functioning students to provide greater input and direction to the process, reinforcing their own learning and content-related leadership, while other students may feel more confident to address questions and uncertainties directly to fellow students ( Jurewitsch, 2012 ; Nguyen, 2015 ). This appears consistent with findings by Cavanaugh and Jacquemin (2015), who observed that well-performing students perform better when taking the online version of a class, although one small study (Kurt et al. , 2010) reported lower aggregate levels of learning anxiety in a F2F course. Another argument as to why OL results in better student performance is that geographical distance does not play a role in student enrolment, and therefore the range of potential students is increased ( Jurewitsch, 2012 ). Similarly, the flexibility of synchronous and asynchronous OL has been found to be associated with increased student performance ( Nguyen, 2015 ). This is consistent with the finding from Williams and Castro (2010) that OL allows “for more ongoing learning and more frequent exchanges” (p. 141).
Nguyen (2015) and Jurewitsch (2012) state that OL plays a specific role in enabling better performance by providing an accessible and safe learning environment. Both studies found OL can cater to more learning styles, enables learning through a variety of formats and materials and can more readily cater to individual learning needs, all of which contribute to increased performance. As such, it is critical that the course setup is well-tailored to the specific needs and strengths of OL environments, rather than simply transferring F2F-developed content to online platforms. Several of the included studies reported good and poor translations of such content to online platforms and their effects on student performance ( Jayakumar et al. , 2015 ; Jurewitsch, 2012 ; Raynauld, 2006 ). Raynauld (2006) concluded that the setup of the learning environment is a key determinant for student performance in online courses, as measured by final grade. He found that well-established F2F and OL Economics courses favoured OL, but an established F2F Finance course compared with an OL version delivered for the first time showed no difference, possibly indicating the advantage of online consolidation was lost(albeit the cross-compared courses were different). Jayakumar et al. (2015) found that the web offers significantly more tools for teaching and learning and that the combination of teaching methods is what creates superior performance outcomes for OL courses. Jurewitsch (2012) reported that optimal group size to support problem-based learning and the right mix of synchronous/asynchronous interactions with tutors are amongst key factors which result in superior performance with OL. Moreover, while digital technologies have developed rapidly, student cohorts are increasingly highly adapted to them and able to draw out the best of what these evolving platforms have to offer ( Jurewitsch, 2012 ; Yen et al. , 2018 ).
In a review of the pedagogical responses of 20 countries within the “intra-period Covid-19 response”, Crawford et al. (2020) found a range of approaches have been taken by universities, which are highly dependent upon their respective country’s political decisions on Higher Education policy, infection rates and pandemic control measures. In countries such as Jordan, the pandemic is enabling an arguably overdue digitalisation of Higher Education. In places such as Australia, there is a desire to keep campuses open and get back to F2F teaching with physical distancing protocols as soon as possible. The reasons for returning to or maintaining F2F teaching are complex. These range from (often unfounded) presumptions of teaching quality and student preference, to concerns about wider social and economic implications of moving away from physical campuses. This disruption is mirrored in the corporate sector where some companies, based on their pandemic experiences, now see a future with “much less real estate” ( Schatzker, 2020 ).
It is notable that while several studies in our review found the physical presence of a tutor conferred distinct learning advantages ( Addis, 2009 ; Bond and Peterson, 2004 ; Callister and Love, 2016 ) this was only observed in a small proportion of the total sample. More direct time with instructors and the ability to observe and emulate their practice (e.g. elementary school educators) were cited advantages, although some of these same studies noted adjustments to new online formats and technical constraints may have affected their relative outcomes. While newer digital platforms have likely reduced such gaps( Williamson, 2019 ), online delivery has the potential to compromise academic quality and curriculum standards, particularly where academics are overworked, inexperienced and/or unsupported by their institutions to make the digital transition. The rapid move of some teaching to fully online formats during the pandemic presents substantial risks in this regard and the heightened need for sharing good practice. Crawford et al. (2020) advise that universities “need to be conscious of their ability to continuously monitor the quality of the learning design” (p. 20) in such times of rapid change and uncertainty.
By grounding our review in the empirical comparisons between online and F2F delivery, we travel some way beyond Burns (2020) critique of the utopian discourse that digital technologies can and will save us and can and have saved higher education “the first time from austerity funding models, the second time from a pandemic” (p. 247) to find that many aspects of digital education are beneficial for student learning. However, there is also a warning here; that when digital technologies meet neoliberal policy reforms, academia and academics may not be able to respond to the kind of political-economic restructuring that follows ( Kornbluh, 2020 ). Beyond the surface issue of learning modalities, there is much at stake for higher education when it is reworked by the application of digital technologies for neoliberal purposes in a pandemic.
A broad limitation of the review findings relates to the substantial variability that exists regarding research-related terminology, examined learning processes and outcomes and the associated measures used to determine learning efficacy. This high variability made it difficult, within the scope of the current analysis, to be able to meaningfully compare outcomes between some studies. This issue has been highlighted by several researchers examining this topic ( Jayakumar et al. , 2015 ; Jurewitsch, 2012 ; Nguyen, 2015 ). The comparability limitations risk a lack of “critical mass” regarding well-aligned and controlled studies and an ability to address key issues at a level of detail. Many of, which did not randomly allocate subjects or otherwise control for variables, which could potentially confound outcomes (e.g. mode self-selection). For example, there is evidence of student preferences towards online courses, due to their convenience and other factors ( Jurewitsch, 2012 ) and that better students may adjust more readily and perform better in digital education ( Cavanaugh and Jacquemin, 2015 ). Similarly, better educators may adapt more readily to the online environment and are better capitalise on the learning advantages it offers. Such factors indicate that wider determinations regarding relative efficacy must be drawn with caution and with recognition of these existing limitations with study methods. As noted, future research could resolve some of this uncertainty using well-controlled studies. Such research could also move beyond the coarser indicators of learning effectiveness (e.g. final grade) to examine process elements associated with optimal learning such as group interactive processes ( Shea and Bidjerano, 2012 ) and cognitive analysis and integration in these contexts ( Heckman and Annabi, 2005 ; Kurt and Gürcan, 2010 ). Research is also needed to determine optimal mode combinations within synchronous hybrid OL/F2Fmethods such as Hyflex ( Beatty, 2014 ), including clarification of the “best use” of F2F delivery, particularly as classroom delivery will increasingly be embedded within such formats ( Brown et al. , 2020 ). Another limitation is that our analysis rests on a binary distinction between F2F and online teaching modes. While reflecting on a current reality for some educators, it is an increasingly difficult boundary to maintain given how integrated and enmeshed we are in digital infrastructures, systems and devices within our everyday lives. Costa et al. (2019) call for more advanced theoretical work around technology in education that goes beyond modes, individual tools and binary distinctions and conceptualise technology and its pedagogical impacts “in more nuanced and critical ways” (p. 396) to make new possibilities for higher education in the present and foreseeable future.
Our findings indicate that there is little consistent evidence after the year 2000 that F2F university teaching supports better student learning outcomes. Conversely, there is evidence at an aggregate level that OL is at least as effective and often confers a modest advantage compared with F2F modalities across a range of study disciplines. These results can inform university educators and administrators as to the broad-based efficacy of this teaching mode, particularly as the pandemic has brought its use and value into sharp focus. While it is possible that the current findings reflect forms of systematic bias, mitigating against this conclusion is the aggregate nature of these results; mode-specific findings favouring OL outcomes at a 2:1 ratio when compared to F2F delivery. Key factors within this appear to be the role and “presence” of online tutors and their capacity to create “well-scaffolded”, engaging learning activities, particularly those conducted through small-group interactive tasks which develop independent learning skills. Peer facilitation developed this way may be one of the best strategies to encourage participation, while also freeing the teacher’s role to focus on developing consensus or specific learning outcomes. Importantly, such student-to-student interactions appear to generate higher levels of cognitive challenge and activity, with the reviewed evidence indicating these specific relationships were often stronger in online team environments.
While the current findings highlight the mounting evidence-based regarding online learning, further research is needed to support its conclusions but also to better understanding the constituent elements contributing to effective learning outcomes across modalities and within hybrid approaches. This requires a greater body of well-designed studies with large, cross-institutional samples that can support statistically significant findings. These should also provide a detailed examination of interactive-process elements, including peer facilitation and teacher leadership/presence, their relationship with learning outcomes and whether mode-specific factors enable such processes. A final question of interest to our research group is whether the learning of instrumental (“hands-on”) skills is better achieved through F2F modes. The current review included studies, which found skills-based learning outcomes (e.g. musical performance and medical procedures) were similar in online and F2F modes, but the evidence-base remains limited. As university learning increasingly shifts to digitised formats, this is a key issue affecting higher education and industry sectors alike and is the focus of further research within our team.
Primary search combinations and relevant studies identified
Combination of key search terms | Identified items (no.) | Studies included post-review (no.) |
---|---|---|
Online learning comparison “face to face” | 31 | 11 |
Online learning study “face to face” | 23 | 6 |
Online learning outcomes “face to face” | 19 | 4 |
Online study comparison “face to face” | 6 | 2 |
“Web-based” comparison learning “face to face” | 10 | 1 |
“Web-based” learning study “face to face” | 2 | 0 |
eLearning “face to face” | 9 | 0 |
eLearning learning “face to face” | 0 | 0 |
eLearning study “face to face” | 0 | 0 |
eLearning learning outcome “face to face” | 0 | 0 |
eLearning study comparison “face to face” | 1 | 0 |
Online learning review “face to face” | 6 | 4 |
Summary of primary university learning outcomes by teaching mode
Primary outcome variables | Greater efficacy | Studies | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Study/first author | Subject | Tests/grades | Satisfaction | Self-rated performance | Other – rating: tutor (t) student (s) | F2F | OL | No difference | ( ) |
Human resource | X | X | X | X | 1 | ||||
Bond (2004) | Social science | X | X | Problem-based learning (t) | X | 1 | |||
Heckman (2005) | Information management | Cognitive process, group task (t) | X | 1 | |||||
Economics and finance | X | X | 1 | ||||||
Language | X | X | X | 1 | |||||
Herman (2007) | Teacher education | X | Class discussion and engagement (t) | X | 1 | ||||
Teacher education | X | X | X | 1 | |||||
Multiple | X | X | 24 | ||||||
San Jose (2009) | Communications | Learning stress/adaptation (s) | X | 1 | |||||
Horspool (2010) | Music | X | X | Musical performance (t) | X | 1 | |||
Kurt (2010) | Unclear | Cognitive strategy (t) | X | 1 | |||||
Pilbeam (2010) | Computer literacy | X | Tutor attitudes (s) | X | 1 | ||||
Sussman (2010) | Social science | X | Learning (s) | X | 1 | ||||
Williams (2010) | Organisational behaviour | X | Team perform (s) | X | 1 | ||||
Social science | X | X | X | 1 | |||||
Multiple | X | X | X | 4 | |||||
Multiple | X | X | X | −− | 21 | ||||
Medicine | X | X | Confidence | X | 1 | ||||
Woolsey (2013) | Communications | X | X | X | 1 | ||||
Ghonsooly (2014) | Language | X | Learning (s) | X | 1 | ||||
Health-care (mixed) | X | Spiritual awareness (s) | X | 1 | |||||
Nursing | X | X | Performance and knowledge (t) | X | 6 | ||||
Cavanaugh (2015) | Multiple | X | GPA | X | 1 | ||||
Medical (surgery) | X | Surgery speed (t) Knowledge (s) | X | 4 | |||||
Multiple | X | X | Learning and engagement (s) | X | 6 | ||||
Callister (2016) | Negotiation | X | X | 1 | |||||
Nursing | X | −− | 5 | ||||||
Child development | X | X | X | 1 | |||||
In composite studies/meta-analyses – indicated outcome variable is that most used
Composite/meta-analyses report overall efficacy finding; results of included individual studies were:
Means et al. (2009) F2F(7); OL(16); ND(0)
Jurewitsch (2012) F2F(0); OL(3); ND(0)
Lack (2013) F2F(1); OL(3); ND(16) [no clear determination from assessed data]
McCutcheon et al. (2014) F2F(0); OL(2); ND(3)
Jayakumar et al. (2015) F2F(0); OL(3); ND(0)
Nguyen (2015) F2F(2); OL(2); ND(1) [categorised OL based on main study finding]
Voutilainen et al. (2017) F2F(2); OL(2); ND(0) [no clear determination from assessed data]
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Graham , M. ( 2014 ), “ Social media as a tool for increased student participation and engagementoutside the classroom in higher education ”, Journal of Perspectives in Applied Academic Practice , Vol. 2 No. 3 , doi: 10.14297/jpaap.v2i3.113 .
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This study was supported by the School of Social Sciences, Humanitarian and Development Research Initiative (HADRI) and the Young and Resilient Research Centre at Western Sydney University, Australia.
About the authors.
Garry John Stevens is a Senior Lecturer in the Humanitarian and Development Studies Programme at Western Sydney University. As part of the Humanitarian and Development Research Initiative (HADRI), he is involved in projects examining population preparedness for disasters and critical incidents, including occupational risk and resilience factors amongst emergency service workers, Disaster Medical Assistance Teams and humanitarian aid workers and trainees. His recent work with Aid practitioners focusses on worker self-care and well-being in the context of work-related stress. He is also involved in population mental health and epidemiology, including technology-assisted mental health-care in hospital and community settings.
Tobias Bienz holds a master’s degree in International Affairs from the University of St. Gallen. In the process of completing his degree, he consulted for the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. He also taught a class on “Innovative Projects for a Sustainable Future”. Furthermore, he was selected as a Leader of Tomorrow at the 2018 St. Gallen Symposium, having successfully submitted an essay on the future of work, which was later presented in the adapted form at the Asia Pacific Humanitarian Leadership Conference in Melbourne. Tobias is also a social impact entrepreneur engaged in starting, growing and scaling social impact start-ups.
Nidhi Wali is a Senior Research Officer at the HADRI at Western Sydney University. She holds a master’s degree in Development Studies from the University of Sussex, UK and is pursuing her Doctor of Philosophy research at Western Sydney University focussing on “Child undernutrition in South Asia”. In India, she has worked with the national government, as well as with international organisations such as CARE, Public Health Resource Network and UNICEF on maternal and child health and nutrition programmes. Her present research focusses on international development, public health and migrant issues of settlement and access to services and has published across these issues.
Jenna Condie is a Senior Lecturer in Digital Society in the Social of Social Sciences and a School-based Research Fellow with the Young and Resilient Research Centre at Western Sydney University. Her interdisciplinary research traverses critical psychology, geography and technology studies. Jenna’s research is concerned with what people and places are becoming with digital technologies. Current projects focus on women’s safety, digital geographies of fear and equitable mobilities. She co-leads Travel in the Digital Age (TinDA) and Social Technologies (SoTech) research teams.
Spyros Schismenos is currently a PhD Fellow and Member of HADRI at the School of Social Sciences, Western Sydney University, Australia. Since 2016, he has been working closely with the UNESCO Chair on Conservation and Ecotourism of Riparian and Deltaic Ecosystems as the Focal Point for the Wider Region of Asia-Pacific. He is a Member of the Youth International Soil Governance Commission (YISGC) of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations. His research disciplines focus on Humanitarian Engineering, Disaster Management, Renewable Energy, Distance Learning, Disaster Education and Community Development.
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Bonus Material: 10 complete example essays
Writing an essay can often feel like a Herculean task. How do you go from a prompt… to pages of beautifully-written and clearly-supported writing?
This 12-step method is for students who want to write a great essay that makes a clear argument.
In fact, using the strategies from this post, in just 88 minutes, one of our students revised her C+ draft to an A.
If you’re interested in learning how to write awesome argumentative essays and improve your writing grades, this post will teach you exactly how to do it.
First, grab our download so you can follow along with the complete examples.
Then keep reading to see all 12 essential steps to writing a great essay.
Download 10 example essays
One of the most common mistakes that students make when writing is to just dive in haphazardly without a plan.
Writing is a bit like cooking. If you’re making a meal, would you start throwing ingredients at random into a pot? Probably not!
Instead, you’d probably start by thinking about what you want to cook. Then you’d gather the ingredients, and go to the store if you don’t already have them in your kitchen. Then you’d follow a recipe, step by step, to make your meal.
Here’s our 12-step recipe for writing a great argumentative essay:
Grab our download to see the complete example at every stage, along with 9 great student essays. Then let’s go through the steps together and write an A+ essay!
Sometimes you might be assigned a topic by your instructor, but often you’ll have to come up with your own idea!
If you don’t pick the right topic, you can be setting yourself up for failure.
Be careful that your topic is something that’s actually arguable —it has more than one side. Check out our carefully-vetted list of 99 topic ideas .
Let’s pick the topic of laboratory animals . Our question is should animals be used for testing and research ?
Download our set of 10 great example essays to jump to the finished version of this essay.
One of the big differences between the way an academic argumentative essay and the version of the assignment that you may have done in elementary school is that for an academic argumentative essay, we need to support our arguments with evidence .
Where do we get that evidence?
Let’s be honest, we all are likely to start with Google and Wikipedia.
Now, Wikipedia can be a useful starting place if you don’t know very much about a topic, but don’t use Wikipedia as your main source of evidence for your essay.
Instead, look for reputable sources that you can show to your readers as proof of your arguments. It can be helpful to read some sources from either side of your issue.
Look for recently-published sources (within the last 20 years), unless there’s a specific reason to do otherwise.
Good places to look for sources are:
Some of these sources are typically behind a paywall. This can be frustrating when you’re a middle-school or high-school student.
However, there are often ways to get access to these sources. Librarians (at your school library or local public library) can be fantastic resources, and they can often help you find a copy of the article or book you want to read. In particular, librarians can help you use Interlibrary Loan to order books or journals to your local library!
More and more scientists and other researchers are trying to publish their articles for free online, in order to encourage the free exchange of knowledge. Check out respected open-access platforms like arxiv.org and PLOS ONE .
How do you find these sources?
If you have access to an academic database like JSTOR or EBSCO , that’s a great place to start.
Everyone can use Google Scholar to search for articles. This is a powerful tool and highly recommended!
Of course, if there’s a term you come across that you don’t recognize, you can always just Google it!
How many sources do you need? That depends on the length of your essay and on the assignment. If your instructor doesn’t give you any other guidance, assume that you should have at least three good sources.
For our topic of animal research, here’s a few sources that we could assemble:
Geoff Watts. “Animal Testing: Is It Worth It?” BMJ: British Medical Journal , Jan. 27, 2007, Vol. 334, No. 7586 (Jan. 27, 2007), pp. 182-184.
Kim Bartel Sheehan and Joonghwa Lee. “What’s Cruel About Cruelty Free: An Exploration of Consumers, Moral Heuristics, and Public Policy.” Journal of Animal Ethics , Vol. 4, No. 2 (Fall 2014), pp. 1-15.
Justin Goodman, Alka Chandna and Katherine Roe. “Trends in animal use at US research facilities.” Journal of Medical Ethics , July 2015, Vol. 41, No. 7 (July 2015), pp. 567-569.
Katy Taylor. “Recent Developments in Alternatives to Animal Testing.” In Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change . Brill 2019.
Thomas Hartung. “Research and Testing Without Animals: Where Are We Now and Where Are We Heading?” In Animal Experimentation: Working Towards a Paradigm Change . Brill 2019.
Bonus: download 10 example essays now .
Once you have a nice pile of sources, it’s time to read them!
As we read, we want to take notes that will be useful to us later as we write our essay.
We want to be careful to keep the source’s ideas separate from our own ideas . Come up with a system to clearly mark the difference as you’re taking notes: use different colors, or use little arrows to represent the ideas that are yours and not the source’s ideas.
We can use this structure to keep notes in an organized way:
Bibliographic details | – Specific evidence that the source uses – Ideas and themes in the source that seem useful | Figure out the main arguments in the source – Figure out the supporting arguments in the source – How does this source relate to the other sources that you’re using? Does it agree/disagree? Does it use the same or different evidence and reasoning? – What kind of bias does the author have? – Any other thoughts or observations |
Download a template for these research notes here .
For our topic of animal research, our notes might look something like this:
Kim Bartel Sheehan and Joonghwa Lee. “What’s Cruel About Cruelty Free: An Exploration of Consumers, Moral Heuristics, and Public Policy.” Journal of Animal Ethics , Vol. 4, No. 2 (Fall 2014), pp. 1-15. | Because there are many definitions of the phrase “cruelty-free,” many companies “can (and do) use the term when the product or its ingredients were indeed tested on animals” (1). The authors compare “cruelty-free” to the term “fair trade.” There is an independent inspection and certification group (Flo-Cert) that reviews products labeled as “fair trade,” but there’s no analogous process for “cruelty-free” (2). Companies can also hire outside firms to test products and ingredients on animals (3). | → So anyone can just put that label on a product? Apparently, apart from in the European Union. That seems really easy to abuse for marketing purposes. |
Andrew Knight. “Critically Evaluating Animal Research.” In . Brill 2019. | Knight cites “significant methodological flaws” in “most published animal experiments” (326). For example, “randomized allocation of animals to test groups was reported in only 12%” of a set of 271 studies—in the rest of the studies, researchers could select (whether consciously or not) weaker animals to serve as the control group, for example (326). Similarly, only 14% of papers in a different survey reported the use of blinding in making qualitative assessments of outcomes (327). The ARRIVE guidelines have been widely endorsed by leading research journals (including Nature, PLoS, and BioMed Central) and major UK funding agencies, and they’re part of the US National Research Council Institute for Laboratory Animal Research guidelines (330). But…compliance with the guidelines “remains poor” (330). | → Many people championing or opposing animal testing have their careers at stake. They’re either researchers who use animals as a fundamental part of their research, or they are working on alternatives to animal testing (like Harding). This seems like a potential problem with the debate. → So one way to improve the methodological quality of studies would be to encourage (or regulate) randomization and blinded assessment of outcomes. |
(continued) Andrew Knight. “Critically Evaluating Animal Research.” In . Brill 2019. | Knight advocates that compliance with the ARRIVE guidelines and other standards “must become mandatory,” and that “compliance with such standards should be a necessary condition for security research funding and ethical approval; licensing of researchers, facilities, and experimental protocols; and publication of subsequent results” (331). Knight also argues that “prior to designing any new animal study, researchers should conduct a systematic review to collate, appraise, and synthesize all existing, good-quality evidence relating to their research questions,” and that this step should also be required by grant agencies, licensing bodies, and journals (332). He notes that systematic reviews are really helpful and should be funded more frequently (332). The article then covers impacts on laboratory animals—invasive procedures, stress, pain, and death (333). These aren’t very widely or clearly reported (333). | → This seems like a reasonable position. What would there be to lose from requiring compliance with these guidelines? I suppose it could make research more difficult or expensive to conduct—but probably it would weed out some bad research. → Good to remember that research requires money and is shaped by market forces—it’s not some neutral thing happening in an ivory tower. |
Grab our download to read the rest of the notes and see more examples of how to do thoughtful research!
What major themes did you find in your reading? What did you find most interesting or convincing?
Now is the point when you need to pick a side on your topic, if you haven’t already done so. Now that you’ve read more about the issue, what do you think? Write down your position on the issue:
Animal testing is necessary but should be reduced.
Next, it’s time to add more detail to your thesis. What reasons do you have to support that position? Add those to your sentence.
Animal testing is necessary but should be reduced by eliminating testing for cosmetics, ensuring that any testing is scientifically sound, and replacing animal models with other methods as much as possible.
Add qualifiers to refine your position. Are there situations in which your position would not apply? Or are there other conditions that need to be met?
For our topic of animal research, our final thesis statement (with lead-in) might look something like this:
The argument: Animal testing and research should not be abolished, as doing so would upend important medical research and substance testing. However, scientific advances mean that in many situations animal testing can be replaced by other methods that not only avoid the ethical problems of animal testing, but also are less costly and more accurate. Governments and other regulatory bodies should further regulate animal testing to outlaw testing for cosmetics and other recreational products, ensure that the tests conducted are both necessary and scientifically rigorous, and encourage the replacement of animal use with other methods whenever possible.
The highlighted bit at the end is the thesis statement, but the lead-in is useful to help us set up the argument—and having it there already will make writing our introduction easier!
The thesis statement is the single most important sentence of your essay. Without a strong thesis, there’s no chance of writing a great essay. Read more about it here .
See how nine real students wrote great thesis statements in 9 example essays now.
Think of three good arguments why your position is true. We’re going to make each one into a body paragraph of your essay.
For now, write them out as 1–2 sentences. These will be topic sentences for each body paragraph.
For our essay about animal testing, it might look like this:
Supporting argument #1: For ethical reasons, animal testing should not be allowed for cosmetics and recreational products.
Supporting argument #2: The tests that are conducted with animals should be both necessary (for the greater good) and scientifically rigorous—which isn’t always the case currently. This should be regulated by governments and institutions.
Supporting argument #3: Governments and institutions should do more to encourage the replacement of animal testing with other methods.
Think of a potential counterargument to your position. Consider writing a fourth paragraph anticipating this counterargument, or find a way to include it in your other body paragraphs.
For our essay, that might be:
Possible counterargument: Animal testing is unethical and should not be used in any circumstances.
Response to the counterargument: Animal testing is deeply entrenched in many research projects and medical procedures. Abruptly ceasing animal testing would upend the scientific and medical communities. But there are many ways that animal testing could be reduced.
With these three arguments, a counterargument, and a thesis, we now have a skeleton outline! See each step of this essay in full in our handy download .
Look through your research. What did you find that would support each of your three arguments?
Copy and paste those quotes or paraphrases into the outline. Make sure that each one is annotated so that you know which source it came from!
Ideally you already started thinking about these sources when you were doing your research—that’s the ideas in the rightmost column of our research template. Use this stuff too!
A good rule of thumb would be to use at least three pieces of evidence per body paragraph.
Think about in what order it would make most sense to present your points. Rearrange your quotes accordingly! As you reorder them, feel free to start adding short sentences indicating the flow of ideas .
For our essay about animal testing, part of our populated outline might look something like:
Argument #1: For ethical reasons, animal testing should not be allowed for cosmetics and recreational products.
Lots of animals are used for testing and research.
In the US, about 22 million animals were used annually in the early 1990s, mostly rodents (BMJ 1993, 1020).
But there are ethical problems with using animals in laboratory settings. Opinions about the divide between humans and animals might be shifting.
McIsaac refers to “the essential moral dilemma: how to balance the welfare of humans with the welfare of other species” (Hubel, McIsaac 29).
The fundamental legal texts used to justify animal use in biomedical research were created after WWII, and drew a clear line between experiments on animals and on humans. The Nuremburg Code states that “the experiment should be so designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the disease or other problem under study that the anticipated results will justify the performance of the experiment” (Ferrari, 197). The 1964 Declaration of the World Medical Association on the Ethical Principles for Medical Research Involving Human Subjects (known as the Helsinki Declaration) states that “Medical research involving human subjects must conform to generally accepted scientific principles, be based on a thorough knowledge of the scientific literature, other relevant sources of information, and adequate laboratory and, as appropriate, animal experimentation. The welfare of animals used for research must be respected” (Ferrari, 197).
→ Context? The Nuremberg Code is a set of ethical research principles, developed in 1947 in the wake of Nazi atrocities during WWII, specifically the inhumane and often fatal experimentation on human subjects without consent.
“Since the 1970s, the animal-rights movement has challenged the use of animals in modern Western society by rejecting the idea of dominion of human beings over nature and animals and stressing the intrinsic value and rights of individual animals” (van Roten, 539, referencing works by Singer, Clark, Regan, and Jasper and Nelkin).
“The old (animal) model simply does not fully meet the needs of scientific and economic progress; it fails in cost, speed, level of detail of understanding, and human relevance. On top of this, animal experimentation lacks acceptance by an ethically evolving society” (Hartung, 682).
Knight’s article summarizes negative impacts on laboratory animals—invasive procedures, stress, pain, and death (Knight, 333). These aren’t very widely or clearly reported (Knight, 333). → Reading about these definitely produces an emotional reaction—they sound bad.
Given this context, it makes sense to ban animal testing in situations where it’s just for recreational products like cosmetics.
Fortunately, animal testing for cosmetics is less common than we might think.
A Gallup poll published in 1990 found that 14% of people thought that the most frequent reason for using animals to test cosmetics for safety—but figures from the UK Home Office in 1991 found that less than 1% of animals were used for tests for cosmetics and toiletries (BMJ 1993, 1019). → So in the early 1990s there was a big difference between what people thought was happening and what actually was happening!
But it still happens, and there are very few regulations of it (apart from in the EU).
Because there are many definitions of the phrase “cruelty-free,” many companies “can (and do) use the term when the product or its ingredients were indeed tested on animals” (Sheehan and Lee, 1).
The authors compare “cruelty-free” to the term “fair trade.” There is an independent inspection and certification group (Flo-Cert) that reviews products labeled as “fair trade,” but there’s no analogous process for “cruelty-free” (Sheehan and Lee, 2). → So anyone can just put that label on a product? Apparently, apart from in the European Union. That seems really easy to abuse for marketing purposes.
Companies can also hire outside firms to test products and ingredients on animals (Sheehan and Lee, 3).
Animal testing for recreational, non-medical purposes should be banned, like it is in the EU.
Download the full example outline here .
Occasionally you might realize that there’s a hole in your research, and you don’t have enough evidence to support one of your points.
In this situation, either change your argument to fit the evidence that you do have, or do a bit more research to fill the hole!
For example, looking at our outline for argument #1 for our essay on animal testing, it’s clear that this paragraph is missing a small but crucial bit of evidence—a reference to this specific ban on animal testing for cosmetics in Europe. Time for a bit more research!
A visit to the official website of the European Commission yields a copy of the law, which we can add to our populated outline:
“The cosmetics directive provides the regulatory framework for the phasing out of animal testing for cosmetics purposes. Specifically, it establishes (1) a testing ban – prohibition to test finished cosmetic products and cosmetic ingredients on animals, and (2) a marketing ban – prohibition to market finished cosmetic products and ingredients in the EU which were tested on animals. The same provisions are contained in the cosmetics regulation , which replaced the cosmetics directive as of 11 July 2013. The testing ban on finished cosmetic products applies since 11 September 2004. The testing ban on ingredients or combination of ingredients applies since 11 March 2009. The marketing ban applies since 11 March 2009 for all human health effects with the exception of repeated-dose toxicity, reproductive toxicity, and toxicokinetics. For these specific health effects, the marketing ban applies since 11 March 2013, irrespective of the availability of alternative non-animal tests.” (website of the European Commission, “Ban on animal testing”)
Alright, now this supporting argument has the necessary ingredients!
You don’t need to use all of the evidence that you found in your research. In fact, you probably won’t use all of it!
This part of the writing process requires you to think critically about your arguments and what evidence is relevant to your points .
Once you’ve organized your evidence and decided what you want to use for your essay, now you get to start adding your own analysis!
You may have already started synthesizing and evaluating your sources when you were doing your research (the stuff on the right-hand side of our template). This gives you a great starting place!
For each piece of evidence, follow this formula:
If you follow this fool-proof formula as you write, you will create clear, well-evidenced arguments.
As you get more experienced, you might stray a bit from the formula—but a good essay will always intermix evidence with explanation and analysis, and will always contain signposts back to the thesis throughout.
For our essay about animal testing, our first body paragraph might look like:
Every year, millions of animals—mostly rodents—are used for testing and research (BMJ 1993, 1020) . This testing poses an ethical dilemma: “how to balance the welfare of humans with the welfare of other species” (Hubel, McIsaac 29) . Many of the fundamental legal tests that are used to justify animal use in biomedical research were created in wake of the horrors of World War II, when the Nazi regime engaged in terrible experimentation on their human prisoners. In response to these atrocities, philosophers and lawmakers drew a clear line between experimenting on humans without consent and experimenting on (non-human) animals. For example, the 1947 Nuremberg Code stated that “the experiment should be so designed and based on the results of animal experimentation and a knowledge of the natural history of the disease or other problem under study that the anticipated results will justify the performance of the experiment” (Ferrari, 197) . Created two years after the war, the code established a set of ethical research principles to demarcate ethical differences between animals and humans, clarifying differences between Nazi atrocities and more everyday research practices. However, in the following decades, the animal-rights movement has challenged the philosophical boundaries between humans and animals and questioned humanity’s right to exert dominion over animals (van Roten, 539, referencing works by Singer, Clark, Regan, and Jasper and Nelkin) . These concerns are not without justification, as animals used in laboratories are subject to invasive procedures, stress, pain, and death (Knight, 333) . Indeed, reading detailed descriptions of this research can be difficult to stomach . In light of this, while some animal testing that contributes to vital medical research and ultimately saves millions of lives may be ethically justified, animal testing that is purely for recreational purposes like cosmetics cannot be ethically justified . Fortunately, animal testing for cosmetics is less common than we might think . In 1990, a poll found that 14% of people in the UK thought that the most frequent reason for using animals to test cosmetics for safety—but actual figures were less than 1% (BMJ 1993, 1019) . Unfortunately, animal testing for cosmetics is not subject to very much regulation . In particular, companies can use the phrase “cruelty-free” to mean just about anything, and many companies “can (and do) use the term when the product or its ingredients were indeed tested on animals” (Sheehan and Lee, 1) . Unlike the term “fair trade,” which has an independent inspection and certification group (Flo-Cert) that reviews products using the label, there’s no analogous process for “cruelty-free” (Sheehan and Lee, 2) . Without regulation, the term is regularly abused by marketers . Companies can also hire outside firms to test products and ingredients on animals and thereby pass the blame (Sheehan and Lee, 3) . Consumers trying to avoid products tested on animals are frequently tricked . Greater regulation of terms would help, but the only way to end this kind of deceit will be to ban animal testing for recreational, non-medical purposes . The European Union is the only governmental body yet to accomplish this . In a series of regulations, the EU first banned testing finished cosmetic products (2004), then testing ingredients or marketing products which were tested on animals (2009); exceptions for specific health effects ended in 2013 (website of the European Commission, “Ban on animal testing”) . The result is that the EU bans testing cosmetic ingredients or finished cosmetic products on animals, as well as marketing any cosmetic ingredients and products which were tested on animals elsewhere (Regulation 1223/2009/EU, known as the “Cosmetics Regulation”) . The rest of the world should follow this example and ban animal testing on cosmetic ingredients and products, which do not contribute significantly to the greater good and therefore cannot outweigh the cost to animal lives .
Edit down the quotes/paraphrases as you go. In many cases, you might copy out a great long quote from a source…but only end up using a few words of it as a direct quote, or you might only paraphrase it!
There were several good quotes in our previous step that just didn’t end up fitting here. That’s fine!
Take a look at the words and phrases highlighted in red. Notice how sometimes a single word can help to provide necessary context and create a logical transition for a new idea. Don’t forget the transitions! These words and phrases are essential to good writing.
The end of the paragraph should very clearly tie back to the thesis statement.
If it’s not specified in your assignment prompt, it’s always appropriate to ask your instructor who the intended audience of your essay or paper might be. (Your instructor will usually be impressed by this question!)
If you don’t get any specific guidance, imagine that your audience is the typical readership of a newspaper like the New York Times —people who are generally educated, but who don’t have any specialized knowledge of the specific subject, especially if it’s more technical.
That means that you should explain any words or phrases that aren’t everyday terminology!
Equally important, you don’t want to leave logical leaps for your readers to make. Connect all of the dots for them!
See the other body paragraphs of this essay, along with 9 student essays, here .
By now you should have at least three strong body paragraphs, each one with 3–5 pieces of evidence plus your own analysis and synthesis of the evidence.
Each paragraph has a main topic sentence, which we wrote back when we made the outline. This is a good time to check that the topic sentences still match what the rest of the paragraph says!
Think about how these arguments relate to each other. What is the most logical order for them? Re-order your paragraphs if necessary.
Then add a few sentences at the end of each paragraph and/or the beginning of the next paragraph to connect these ideas. This step is often the difference between an okay essay and a really great one!
You want your essay to have a great flow. We didn’t worry about this at the beginning of our writing, but now is the time to start improving the flow of ideas!
Follow this formula to write a great introduction:
(Pro tip: don’t use phrases like “throughout history,” “since the dawn of humankind,” etc. It’s good to think broadly, but you don’t have to make generalizations for all of history.)
This makes a smooth funnel that starts more broadly and smoothly zeroes in on the specific argument.
Your conclusion is kind of like your introduction, but in reverse. It starts with your thesis and ends a little more broadly.
For the conclusion, try and summarize your entire argument without being redundant. Start by restating your thesis but with slightly different wording . Then summarize each of your main points.
If you can, it’s nice to point to the larger significance of the issue. What are the potential consequences of this issue? What are some future directions for it to go in? What remains to be explored?
See how nine students wrote introductions in different styles here .
Check what bibliographic style your instructor wants you to use. If this isn’t clearly stated, it’s a good question to ask them!
Typically the instructions will say something like “Chicago style,” “APA,” etc., or they’ll give you their own rules.
These rules will dictate how exactly you’ll write your citations in the body of your essay (either in parentheses after the quote/paraphrase or else with a footnote or endnote) and how you’ll write your “works cited” with the full bibliographic information at the end.
Follow these rules! The most important thing is to be consistent and clear.
Pro tip: if you’re struggling with this step, your librarians can often help! They’re literally pros at this. 🙂
Now you have a complete draft!
Read it from beginning to end. Does it make sense? Are there any orphan quotes or paraphrases that aren’t clearly explained? Are there any abrupt changes of topic? Fix it!
Are there any problems with grammar or spelling ? Fix them!
Edit for clarity.
Ideally, you’ll finish your draft at least a few days before it’s due to be submitted. Give it a break for a day or two, and then come back to it. Things to be revised are more likely to jump out after a little break!
Try reading your essay out loud. Are there any sentences that don’t sound quite right? Rewrite them!
Double-check your thesis statement. This is the make-or-break moment of your essay, and without a clear thesis it’s pretty impossible for an essay to be a great one. Is it:
Try giving your essay to a friend or family member to read. Sometimes (if you’re lucky) your instructors will offer to read a draft if you turn it in early. What feedback do they have? Edit accordingly!
See the result of this process with 10 example essays now .
You did it! Feel proud of yourself 🙂
We regularly help students work through all of these steps to write great academic essays in our Academic Writing Workshop or our one-on-one writing tutoring . We’re happy to chat more about what’s challenging for you and provide you customized guidance to help you write better papers and improve your grades on writing assignments!
Want to see what this looks like when it’s all pulled together? We compiled nine examples of great student essays, plus all of the steps used to create this model essay, in this handy resource. Download it here !
Emily graduated summa cum laude from Princeton University and holds an MA from the University of Notre Dame. She was a National Merit Scholar and has won numerous academic prizes and fellowships. A veteran of the publishing industry, she has helped professors at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton revise their books and articles. Over the last decade, Emily has successfully mentored hundreds of students in all aspects of the college admissions process, including the SAT, ACT, and college application essay.
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The argumentative essay is a genre of writing that requires the student to investigate a topic; collect, generate, and evaluate evidence; and establish a position on the topic in a concise manner.
Please note : Some confusion may occur between the argumentative essay and the expository essay. These two genres are similar, but the argumentative essay differs from the expository essay in the amount of pre-writing (invention) and research involved. The argumentative essay is commonly assigned as a capstone or final project in first year writing or advanced composition courses and involves lengthy, detailed research. Expository essays involve less research and are shorter in length. Expository essays are often used for in-class writing exercises or tests, such as the GED or GRE.
Argumentative essay assignments generally call for extensive research of literature or previously published material. Argumentative assignments may also require empirical research where the student collects data through interviews, surveys, observations, or experiments. Detailed research allows the student to learn about the topic and to understand different points of view regarding the topic so that she/he may choose a position and support it with the evidence collected during research. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved, argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.
The structure of the argumentative essay is held together by the following.
In the first paragraph of an argument essay, students should set the context by reviewing the topic in a general way. Next the author should explain why the topic is important ( exigence ) or why readers should care about the issue. Lastly, students should present the thesis statement. It is essential that this thesis statement be appropriately narrowed to follow the guidelines set forth in the assignment. If the student does not master this portion of the essay, it will be quite difficult to compose an effective or persuasive essay.
Transitions are the mortar that holds the foundation of the essay together. Without logical progression of thought, the reader is unable to follow the essay’s argument, and the structure will collapse. Transitions should wrap up the idea from the previous section and introduce the idea that is to follow in the next section.
Each paragraph should be limited to the discussion of one general idea. This will allow for clarity and direction throughout the essay. In addition, such conciseness creates an ease of readability for one’s audience. It is important to note that each paragraph in the body of the essay must have some logical connection to the thesis statement in the opening paragraph. Some paragraphs will directly support the thesis statement with evidence collected during research. It is also important to explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis ( warrant ).
However, argumentative essays should also consider and explain differing points of view regarding the topic. Depending on the length of the assignment, students should dedicate one or two paragraphs of an argumentative essay to discussing conflicting opinions on the topic. Rather than explaining how these differing opinions are wrong outright, students should note how opinions that do not align with their thesis might not be well informed or how they might be out of date.
The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points of view when collecting evidence. As noted in the paragraph above, a successful and well-rounded argumentative essay will also discuss opinions not aligning with the thesis. It is unethical to exclude evidence that may not support the thesis. It is not the student’s job to point out how other positions are wrong outright, but rather to explain how other positions may not be well informed or up to date on the topic.
It is at this point of the essay that students may begin to struggle. This is the portion of the essay that will leave the most immediate impression on the mind of the reader. Therefore, it must be effective and logical. Do not introduce any new information into the conclusion; rather, synthesize the information presented in the body of the essay. Restate why the topic is important, review the main points, and review your thesis. You may also want to include a short discussion of more research that should be completed in light of your work.
Perhaps it is helpful to think of an essay in terms of a conversation or debate with a classmate. If I were to discuss the cause of World War II and its current effect on those who lived through the tumultuous time, there would be a beginning, middle, and end to the conversation. In fact, if I were to end the argument in the middle of my second point, questions would arise concerning the current effects on those who lived through the conflict. Therefore, the argumentative essay must be complete, and logically so, leaving no doubt as to its intent or argument.
A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the method consists of (a) an introductory paragraph (b) three evidentiary body paragraphs that may include discussion of opposing views and (c) a conclusion.
Complex issues and detailed research call for complex and detailed essays. Argumentative essays discussing a number of research sources or empirical research will most certainly be longer than five paragraphs. Authors may have to discuss the context surrounding the topic, sources of information and their credibility, as well as a number of different opinions on the issue before concluding the essay. Many of these factors will be determined by the assignment.
Have you ever been asked to explain your opinion on a controversial issue?
Proving your point in an argumentative essay can be challenging, unless you are using a proven formula.
In the image below, you can see a recommended structure for argumentative essays. It starts with the topic sentence, which establishes the main idea of the essay. Next, this hypothesis is developed in the development stage. Then, the rebuttal, or the refutal of the main counter argument or arguments. Then, again, development of the rebuttal. This is followed by an example, and ends with a summary. This is a very basic structure, but it gives you a bird-eye-view of how a proper argumentative essay can be built.
Writing an argumentative essay (for a class, a news outlet, or just for fun) can help you improve your understanding of an issue and sharpen your thinking on the matter. Using researched facts and data, you can explain why you or others think the way you do, even while other reasonable people disagree.
An argumentative essay is an explanatory essay that takes a side.
Instead of appealing to emotion and personal experience to change the reader’s mind, an argumentative essay uses logic and well-researched factual information to explain why the thesis in question is the most reasonable opinion on the matter.
Over several paragraphs or pages, the author systematically walks through:
At the end, the author leaves the decision up to the reader, trusting that the case they’ve made will do the work of changing the reader’s mind. Even if the reader’s opinion doesn’t change, they come away from the essay with a greater understanding of the perspective presented — and perhaps a better understanding of their original opinion.
All of that might make it seem like writing an argumentative essay is way harder than an emotionally-driven persuasive essay — but if you’re like me and much more comfortable spouting facts and figures than making impassioned pleas, you may find that an argumentative essay is easier to write.
Plus, the process of researching an argumentative essay means you can check your assumptions and develop an opinion that’s more based in reality than what you originally thought. I know for sure that my opinions need to be fact checked — don’t yours?
So how exactly do we write the argumentative essay?
First, gain a clear understanding of what exactly an argumentative essay is. To formulate a proper topic sentence, you have to be clear on your topic, and to explore it through research.
Students have difficulty starting an essay because the whole task seems intimidating, and they are afraid of spending too much time on the topic sentence. Experienced writers, however, know that there is no set time to spend on figuring out your topic. It's a real exploration that is based to a large extent on intuition.
Use this checklist to tackle your essay one step at a time:
To start, you need to identify an issue that well-informed people have varying opinions on. Here, it’s helpful to think of one core topic and how it intersects with another (or several other) issues. That intersection is where hot takes and reasonable (or unreasonable) opinions abound.
I find it helpful to stage the issue as a question.
For example:
Is it better to legislate the minimum size of chicken enclosures or to outlaw the sale of eggs from chickens who don’t have enough space?
Should snow removal policies focus more on effectively keeping roads clear for traffic or the environmental impacts of snow removal methods?
Once you have your arguable question ready, start researching the basic facts and specific opinions and arguments on the issue. Do your best to stay focused on gathering information that is directly relevant to your topic. Depending on what your essay is for, you may reference academic studies, government reports, or newspaper articles.
Research your opposition and the facts that support their viewpoint as much as you research your own position . You’ll need to address your opposition in your essay, so you’ll want to know their argument from the inside out.
You likely started with an inclination toward one side or the other, but your research should ultimately shape your perspective. So once you’ve completed the research, nail down your opinion and start articulating the what and why of your take.
What: I think it’s better to outlaw selling eggs from chickens whose enclosures are too small.
Why: Because if you regulate the enclosure size directly, egg producers outside of the government’s jurisdiction could ship eggs into your territory and put nearby egg producers out of business by offering better prices because they don’t have the added cost of larger enclosures.
This is an early form of your thesis and the basic logic of your argument. You’ll want to iterate on this a few times and develop a one-sentence statement that sums up the thesis of your essay.
Thesis: Outlawing the sale of eggs from chickens with cramped living spaces is better for business than regulating the size of chicken enclosures.
Now that you’ve articulated your thesis , spell out the counterargument(s) as well. Putting your opposition’s take into words will help you throughout the rest of the essay-writing process. (You can start by choosing the counter argument option with Wordtune Spices .)
There may be one main counterargument to articulate, or several. Write them all out and start thinking about how you’ll use evidence to address each of them or show why your argument is still the best option.
You did all of that research for a reason. Now’s the time to use it.
Hopefully, you kept detailed notes in a document, complete with links and titles of all your source material. Go through your research document and copy the evidence for your argument and your opposition’s into another document.
List the main points of your argument. Then, below each point, paste the evidence that backs them up.
If you’re writing about chicken enclosures, maybe you found evidence that shows the spread of disease among birds kept in close quarters is worse than among birds who have more space. Or maybe you found information that says eggs from free-range chickens are more flavorful or nutritious. Put that information next to the appropriate part of your argument.
Repeat the process with your opposition’s argument: What information did you find that supports your opposition? Paste it beside your opposition’s argument.
You could also put information here that refutes your opposition, but organize it in a way that clearly tells you — at a glance — that the information disproves their point.
Counterargument: Outlawing the sale of eggs from chickens with too small enclosures will negatively affect prices and sales.
BUT: Sicknesses like avian flu spread more easily through small enclosures and could cause a shortage that would drive up egg prices naturally, so ensuring larger enclosures is still a better policy for consumers over the long term.
As you organize your research and see the evidence all together, start thinking through the best way to order your points.
Will it be better to present your argument all at once or to break it up with opposition claims you can quickly refute? Would some points set up other points well? Does a more complicated point require that the reader understands a simpler point first?
Play around and rearrange your notes to see how your essay might flow one way or another.
Is your brain buzzing yet? At this point in the process, it can be helpful to take out a notebook or open a fresh document and dump whatever you’re thinking on the page.
Where should your essay start? What ground-level information do you need to provide your readers before you can dive into the issue?
Use your organized evidence document from step 3 to think through your argument from beginning to end, and determine the structure of your essay.
As you think through your argument and examine your evidence document, consider which structure will serve your argument best. Sketch out an outline to give yourself a map to follow in the writing process. You could also rearrange your evidence document again to match your outline, so it will be easy to find what you need when you start writing.
You have an outline and an organized document with all your points and evidence lined up and ready. Now you just have to write your essay.
In your first draft, focus on getting your ideas on the page. Your wording may not be perfect (whose is?), but you know what you’re trying to say — so even if you’re overly wordy and taking too much space to say what you need to say, put those words on the page.
Follow your outline, and draw from that evidence document to flesh out each point of your argument. Explain what the evidence means for your argument and your opposition. Connect the dots for your readers so they can follow you, point by point, and understand what you’re trying to say.
1. Any background information your reader needs in order to understand the issue in question.
2. Evidence for both your argument and the counterargument(s). This shows that you’ve done your homework and builds trust with your reader, while also setting you up to make a more convincing argument. (If you find gaps in your research while you’re writing, Wordtune can help.
3. A conclusion that sums up your overall argument and evidence — and leaves the reader with an understanding of the issue and its significance. This sort of conclusion brings your essay to a strong ending that doesn’t waste readers’ time, but actually adds value to your case.
The hard work is done: you have a first draft. Now, let’s fine tune your writing.
I like to step away from what I’ve written for a day (or at least a night of sleep) before attempting to revise. It helps me approach clunky phrases and rough transitions with fresh eyes. If you don’t have that luxury, just get away from your computer for a few minutes — use the bathroom, do some jumping jacks, eat an apple — and then come back and read through your piece.
As you revise, make sure you …
The best way to introduce a convincing argument is to provide a strong thesis statement . These are the words I usually use to start an argumentative essay:
When refuting an opposing concept, use:
Are you convinced by your own argument yet? Ready to brave the next get-together where everyone’s talking like they know something about intermittent fasting , chicken enclosures , or snow removal policies?
Now if someone asks you to explain your evidence-based but controversial opinion, you can hand them your essay and ask them to report back after they’ve read it.
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Miscellaneous
You'll no doubt have to write a number of argumentative essays in both high school and college, but what, exactly, is an argumentative essay and how do you write the best one possible? Let's take a look.
A great argumentative essay always combines the same basic elements: approaching an argument from a rational perspective, researching sources, supporting your claims using facts rather than opinion, and articulating your reasoning into the most cogent and reasoned points. Argumentative essays are great building blocks for all sorts of research and rhetoric, so your teachers will expect you to master the technique before long.
But if this sounds daunting, never fear! We'll show how an argumentative essay differs from other kinds of papers, how to research and write them, how to pick an argumentative essay topic, and where to find example essays. So let's get started.
There are two basic requirements for any and all essays: to state a claim (a thesis statement) and to support that claim with evidence.
Though every essay is founded on these two ideas, there are several different types of essays, differentiated by the style of the writing, how the writer presents the thesis, and the types of evidence used to support the thesis statement.
Essays can be roughly divided into four different types:
#1: Argumentative #2: Persuasive #3: Expository #4: Analytical
So let's look at each type and what the differences are between them before we focus the rest of our time to argumentative essays.
Argumentative essays are what this article is all about, so let's talk about them first.
An argumentative essay attempts to convince a reader to agree with a particular argument (the writer's thesis statement). The writer takes a firm stand one way or another on a topic and then uses hard evidence to support that stance.
An argumentative essay seeks to prove to the reader that one argument —the writer's argument— is the factually and logically correct one. This means that an argumentative essay must use only evidence-based support to back up a claim , rather than emotional or philosophical reasoning (which is often allowed in other types of essays). Thus, an argumentative essay has a burden of substantiated proof and sources , whereas some other types of essays (namely persuasive essays) do not.
You can write an argumentative essay on any topic, so long as there's room for argument. Generally, you can use the same topics for both a persuasive essay or an argumentative one, so long as you support the argumentative essay with hard evidence.
Example topics of an argumentative essay:
The next three types of essays are not argumentative essays, but you may have written them in school. We're going to cover them so you know what not to do for your argumentative essay.
Persuasive essays are similar to argumentative essays, so it can be easy to get them confused. But knowing what makes an argumentative essay different than a persuasive essay can often mean the difference between an excellent grade and an average one.
Persuasive essays seek to persuade a reader to agree with the point of view of the writer, whether that point of view is based on factual evidence or not. The writer has much more flexibility in the evidence they can use, with the ability to use moral, cultural, or opinion-based reasoning as well as factual reasoning to persuade the reader to agree the writer's side of a given issue.
Instead of being forced to use "pure" reason as one would in an argumentative essay, the writer of a persuasive essay can manipulate or appeal to the reader's emotions. So long as the writer attempts to steer the readers into agreeing with the thesis statement, the writer doesn't necessarily need hard evidence in favor of the argument.
Often, you can use the same topics for both a persuasive essay or an argumentative one—the difference is all in the approach and the evidence you present.
Example topics of a persuasive essay:
An expository essay is typically a short essay in which the writer explains an idea, issue, or theme , or discusses the history of a person, place, or idea.
This is typically a fact-forward essay with little argument or opinion one way or the other.
Example topics of an expository essay:
An analytical essay seeks to delve into the deeper meaning of a text or work of art, or unpack a complicated idea . These kinds of essays closely interpret a source and look into its meaning by analyzing it at both a macro and micro level.
This type of analysis can be augmented by historical context or other expert or widely-regarded opinions on the subject, but is mainly supported directly through the original source (the piece or art or text being analyzed) .
Example topics of an analytical essay:
There are many different types of essay and, over time, you'll be able to master them all.
The average argumentative essay is between three to five pages, and will require at least three or four separate sources with which to back your claims . As for the essay topic , you'll most often be asked to write an argumentative essay in an English class on a "general" topic of your choice, ranging the gamut from science, to history, to literature.
But while the topics of an argumentative essay can span several different fields, the structure of an argumentative essay is always the same: you must support a claim—a claim that can reasonably have multiple sides—using multiple sources and using a standard essay format (which we'll talk about later on).
This is why many argumentative essay topics begin with the word "should," as in:
These topics all have at least two sides of the argument: Yes or no. And you must support the side you choose with evidence as to why your side is the correct one.
But there are also plenty of other ways to frame an argumentative essay as well:
Though these are worded differently than the first three, you're still essentially forced to pick between two sides of an issue: yes or no, for or against, benefit or detriment. Though your argument might not fall entirely into one side of the divide or another—for instance, you could claim that social media has positively impacted some aspects of modern life while being a detriment to others—your essay should still support one side of the argument above all. Your final stance would be that overall , social media is beneficial or overall , social media is harmful.
If your argument is one that is mostly text-based or backed by a single source (e.g., "How does Salinger show that Holden Caulfield is an unreliable narrator?" or "Does Gatsby personify the American Dream?"), then it's an analytical essay, rather than an argumentative essay. An argumentative essay will always be focused on more general topics so that you can use multiple sources to back up your claims.
So you know the basic idea behind an argumentative essay, but what topic should you write about?
Again, almost always, you'll be asked to write an argumentative essay on a free topic of your choice, or you'll be asked to select between a few given topics . If you're given complete free reign of topics, then it'll be up to you to find an essay topic that no only appeals to you, but that you can turn into an A+ argumentative essay.
What makes a "good" argumentative essay topic depends on both the subject matter and your personal interest —it can be hard to give your best effort on something that bores you to tears! But it can also be near impossible to write an argumentative essay on a topic that has no room for debate.
As we said earlier, a good argumentative essay topic will be one that has the potential to reasonably go in at least two directions—for or against, yes or no, and why . For example, it's pretty hard to write an argumentative essay on whether or not people should be allowed to murder one another—not a whole lot of debate there for most people!—but writing an essay for or against the death penalty has a lot more wiggle room for evidence and argument.
A good topic is also one that can be substantiated through hard evidence and relevant sources . So be sure to pick a topic that other people have studied (or at least studied elements of) so that you can use their data in your argument. For example, if you're arguing that it should be mandatory for all middle school children to play a sport, you might have to apply smaller scientific data points to the larger picture you're trying to justify. There are probably several studies you could cite on the benefits of physical activity and the positive effect structure and teamwork has on young minds, but there's probably no study you could use where a group of scientists put all middle-schoolers in one jurisdiction into a mandatory sports program (since that's probably never happened). So long as your evidence is relevant to your point and you can extrapolate from it to form a larger whole, you can use it as a part of your resource material.
And if you need ideas on where to get started, or just want to see sample argumentative essay topics, then check out these links for hundreds of potential argumentative essay topics.
101 Persuasive (or Argumentative) Essay and Speech Topics
301 Prompts for Argumentative Writing
Top 50 Ideas for Argumentative/Persuasive Essay Writing
[Note: some of these say "persuasive essay topics," but just remember that the same topic can often be used for both a persuasive essay and an argumentative essay; the difference is in your writing style and the evidence you use to support your claims.]
KO! Find that one argumentative essay topic you can absolutely conquer.
Argumentative Essays are composed of four main elements:
If you're familiar with essay writing in general, then you're also probably familiar with the five paragraph essay structure . This structure is a simple tool to show how one outlines an essay and breaks it down into its component parts, although it can be expanded into as many paragraphs as you want beyond the core five.
The standard argumentative essay is often 3-5 pages, which will usually mean a lot more than five paragraphs, but your overall structure will look the same as a much shorter essay.
An argumentative essay at its simplest structure will look like:
Now let's unpack each of these paragraph types to see how they work (with examples!), what goes into them, and why.
Your first task is to introduce the reader to the topic at hand so they'll be prepared for your claim. Give a little background information, set the scene, and give the reader some stakes so that they care about the issue you're going to discuss.
Next, you absolutely must have a position on an argument and make that position clear to the readers. It's not an argumentative essay unless you're arguing for a specific claim, and this claim will be your thesis statement.
Your thesis CANNOT be a mere statement of fact (e.g., "Washington DC is the capital of the United States"). Your thesis must instead be an opinion which can be backed up with evidence and has the potential to be argued against (e.g., "New York should be the capital of the United States").
These are your body paragraphs in which you give the reasons why your argument is the best one and back up this reasoning with concrete evidence .
The argument supporting the thesis of an argumentative essay should be one that can be supported by facts and evidence, rather than personal opinion or cultural or religious mores.
For example, if you're arguing that New York should be the new capital of the US, you would have to back up that fact by discussing the factual contrasts between New York and DC in terms of location, population, revenue, and laws. You would then have to talk about the precedents for what makes for a good capital city and why New York fits the bill more than DC does.
Your argument can't simply be that a lot of people think New York is the best city ever and that you agree.
In addition to using concrete evidence, you always want to keep the tone of your essay passionate, but impersonal . Even though you're writing your argument from a single opinion, don't use first person language—"I think," "I feel," "I believe,"—to present your claims. Doing so is repetitive, since by writing the essay you're already telling the audience what you feel, and using first person language weakens your writing voice.
For example,
"I think that Washington DC is no longer suited to be the capital city of the United States."
"Washington DC is no longer suited to be the capital city of the United States."
The second statement sounds far stronger and more analytical.
Even without a counter argument, you can make a pretty persuasive claim, but a counterargument will round out your essay into one that is much more persuasive and substantial.
By anticipating an argument against your claim and taking the initiative to counter it, you're allowing yourself to get ahead of the game. This way, you show that you've given great thought to all sides of the issue before choosing your position, and you demonstrate in multiple ways how yours is the more reasoned and supported side.
This paragraph is where you re-state your argument and summarize why it's the best claim.
Briefly touch on your supporting evidence and voila! A finished argumentative essay.
Your essay should have just as awesome a skeleton as this plesiosaur does. (In other words: a ridiculously awesome skeleton)
It always helps to have an example to learn from. I've written a full 5-paragraph argumentative essay here. Look at how I state my thesis in paragraph 1, give supporting evidence in paragraphs 2 and 3, address a counterargument in paragraph 4, and conclude in paragraph 5.
Topic: Is it possible to maintain conflicting loyalties?
Paragraph 1
It is almost impossible to go through life without encountering a situation where your loyalties to different people or causes come into conflict with each other. Maybe you have a loving relationship with your sister, but she disagrees with your decision to join the army, or you find yourself torn between your cultural beliefs and your scientific ones. These conflicting loyalties can often be maintained for a time, but as examples from both history and psychological theory illustrate, sooner or later, people have to make a choice between competing loyalties, as no one can maintain a conflicting loyalty or belief system forever.
The first two sentences set the scene and give some hypothetical examples and stakes for the reader to care about.
The third sentence finishes off the intro with the thesis statement, making very clear how the author stands on the issue ("people have to make a choice between competing loyalties, as no one can maintain a conflicting loyalty or belief system forever." )
Paragraphs 2 and 3
Psychological theory states that human beings are not equipped to maintain conflicting loyalties indefinitely and that attempting to do so leads to a state called "cognitive dissonance." Cognitive dissonance theory is the psychological idea that people undergo tremendous mental stress or anxiety when holding contradictory beliefs, values, or loyalties (Festinger, 1957). Even if human beings initially hold a conflicting loyalty, they will do their best to find a mental equilibrium by making a choice between those loyalties—stay stalwart to a belief system or change their beliefs. One of the earliest formal examples of cognitive dissonance theory comes from Leon Festinger's When Prophesy Fails . Members of an apocalyptic cult are told that the end of the world will occur on a specific date and that they alone will be spared the Earth's destruction. When that day comes and goes with no apocalypse, the cult members face a cognitive dissonance between what they see and what they've been led to believe (Festinger, 1956). Some choose to believe that the cult's beliefs are still correct, but that the Earth was simply spared from destruction by mercy, while others choose to believe that they were lied to and that the cult was fraudulent all along. Both beliefs cannot be correct at the same time, and so the cult members are forced to make their choice.
But even when conflicting loyalties can lead to potentially physical, rather than just mental, consequences, people will always make a choice to fall on one side or other of a dividing line. Take, for instance, Nicolaus Copernicus, a man born and raised in Catholic Poland (and educated in Catholic Italy). Though the Catholic church dictated specific scientific teachings, Copernicus' loyalty to his own observations and scientific evidence won out over his loyalty to his country's government and belief system. When he published his heliocentric model of the solar system--in opposition to the geocentric model that had been widely accepted for hundreds of years (Hannam, 2011)-- Copernicus was making a choice between his loyalties. In an attempt t o maintain his fealty both to the established system and to what he believed, h e sat on his findings for a number of years (Fantoli, 1994). But, ultimately, Copernicus made the choice to side with his beliefs and observations above all and published his work for the world to see (even though, in doing so, he risked both his reputation and personal freedoms).
These two paragraphs provide the reasons why the author supports the main argument and uses substantiated sources to back those reasons.
The paragraph on cognitive dissonance theory gives both broad supporting evidence and more narrow, detailed supporting evidence to show why the thesis statement is correct not just anecdotally but also scientifically and psychologically. First, we see why people in general have a difficult time accepting conflicting loyalties and desires and then how this applies to individuals through the example of the cult members from the Dr. Festinger's research.
The next paragraph continues to use more detailed examples from history to provide further evidence of why the thesis that people cannot indefinitely maintain conflicting loyalties is true.
Paragraph 4
Some will claim that it is possible to maintain conflicting beliefs or loyalties permanently, but this is often more a matter of people deluding themselves and still making a choice for one side or the other, rather than truly maintaining loyalty to both sides equally. For example, Lancelot du Lac typifies a person who claims to maintain a balanced loyalty between to two parties, but his attempt to do so fails (as all attempts to permanently maintain conflicting loyalties must). Lancelot tells himself and others that he is equally devoted to both King Arthur and his court and to being Queen Guinevere's knight (Malory, 2008). But he can neither be in two places at once to protect both the king and queen, nor can he help but let his romantic feelings for the queen to interfere with his duties to the king and the kingdom. Ultimately, he and Queen Guinevere give into their feelings for one another and Lancelot—though he denies it—chooses his loyalty to her over his loyalty to Arthur. This decision plunges the kingdom into a civil war, ages Lancelot prematurely, and ultimately leads to Camelot's ruin (Raabe, 1987). Though Lancelot claimed to have been loyal to both the king and the queen, this loyalty was ultimately in conflict, and he could not maintain it.
Here we have the acknowledgement of a potential counter-argument and the evidence as to why it isn't true.
The argument is that some people (or literary characters) have asserted that they give equal weight to their conflicting loyalties. The refutation is that, though some may claim to be able to maintain conflicting loyalties, they're either lying to others or deceiving themselves. The paragraph shows why this is true by providing an example of this in action.
Paragraph 5
Whether it be through literature or history, time and time again, people demonstrate the challenges of trying to manage conflicting loyalties and the inevitable consequences of doing so. Though belief systems are malleable and will often change over time, it is not possible to maintain two mutually exclusive loyalties or beliefs at once. In the end, people always make a choice, and loyalty for one party or one side of an issue will always trump loyalty to the other.
The concluding paragraph summarizes the essay, touches on the evidence presented, and re-states the thesis statement.
Writing the best argumentative essay is all about the preparation, so let's talk steps:
If you have the option to pick your own argumentative essay topic (which you most likely will), then choose one or two topics you find the most intriguing or that you have a vested interest in and do some preliminary research on both sides of the debate.
Do an open internet search just to see what the general chatter is on the topic and what the research trends are.
Did your preliminary reading influence you to pick a side or change your side? Without diving into all the scholarly articles at length, do you believe there's enough evidence to support your claim? Have there been scientific studies? Experiments? Does a noted scholar in the field agree with you? If not, you may need to pick another topic or side of the argument to support.
Now's the time to pick the side of the argument you feel you can support the best and summarize your main point into your thesis statement.
Your thesis will be the basis of your entire essay, so make sure you know which side you're on, that you've stated it clearly, and that you stick by your argument throughout the entire essay .
You've taken a gander at what the internet at large has to say on your argument, but now's the time to actually read those sources and take notes.
Check scholarly journals online at Google Scholar , the Directory of Open Access Journals , or JStor . You can also search individual university or school libraries and websites to see what kinds of academic articles you can access for free. Keep track of your important quotes and page numbers and put them somewhere that's easy to find later.
And don't forget to check your school or local libraries as well!
Follow the five-paragraph outline structure from the previous section.
Fill in your topic, your reasons, and your supporting evidence into each of the categories.
Before you begin to flesh out the essay, take a look at what you've got. Is your thesis statement in the first paragraph? Is it clear? Is your argument logical? Does your supporting evidence support your reasoning?
By outlining your essay, you streamline your process and take care of any logic gaps before you dive headfirst into the writing. This will save you a lot of grief later on if you need to change your sources or your structure, so don't get too trigger-happy and skip this step.
Now that you've laid out exactly what you'll need for your essay and where, it's time to fill in all the gaps by writing it out.
Take it one step at a time and expand your ideas into complete sentences and substantiated claims. It may feel daunting to turn an outline into a complete draft, but just remember that you've already laid out all the groundwork; now you're just filling in the gaps.
If you have the time before deadline, give yourself a day or two (or even just an hour!) away from your essay . Looking it over with fresh eyes will allow you to see errors, both minor and major, that you likely would have missed had you tried to edit when it was still raw.
Take a first pass over the entire essay and try your best to ignore any minor spelling or grammar mistakes—you're just looking at the big picture right now. Does it make sense as a whole? Did the essay succeed in making an argument and backing that argument up logically? (Do you feel persuaded?)
If not, go back and make notes so that you can fix it for your final draft.
Once you've made your revisions to the overall structure, mark all your small errors and grammar problems so you can fix them in the next draft.
Use the notes you made on the rough draft and go in and hack and smooth away until you're satisfied with the final result.
A checklist for your final draft:
Once you've brought that final draft to a perfect polish and turned in your assignment, you're done! Go you!
Be prepared and ♪ you'll never go hungry again ♪, *cough*, or struggle with your argumentative essay-writing again. (Walt Disney Studios)
Theory is all well and good, but examples are key. Just to get you started on what a fully-fleshed out argumentative essay looks like, let's see some examples in action.
Check out these two argumentative essay examples on the use of landmines and freons (and note the excellent use of concrete sources to back up their arguments!).
The Use of Landmines
A Shattered Sky
At first, writing an argumentative essay may seem like a monstrous hurdle to overcome, but with the proper preparation and understanding, you'll be able to knock yours out of the park.
Remember the differences between a persuasive essay and an argumentative one, make sure your thesis is clear, and double-check that your supporting evidence is both relevant to your point and well-sourced . Pick your topic, do your research, make your outline, and fill in the gaps. Before you know it, you'll have yourself an A+ argumentative essay there, my friend.
Now you know the ins and outs of an argumentative essay, but how comfortable are you writing in other styles? Learn more about the four writing styles and when it makes sense to use each .
Understand how to make an argument, but still having trouble organizing your thoughts? Check out our guide to three popular essay formats and choose which one is right for you.
Ready to make your case, but not sure what to write about? We've created a list of 50 potential argumentative essay topics to spark your imagination.
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An argumentative essay is a genre of academic writing that investigates different sides of a particular issue. Its central purpose is to inform the readers rather than expressively persuade them. Thus, it is crucial to differentiate between argumentative and persuasive essays.
While composing an argumentative essay, the students have to demonstrate their research and analytical skills. The secret of a successful paper lies behind strong arguments and counterarguments. So, the writer should focus on facts and data rather than personal values and beliefs.
Besides, a good argumentative essay should be structured appropriately:
Are you still wondering what an argumentative essay is and how to write it? Check out the sections below prepared by our experts . Here, you can find the most valuable info, helpful tips, and useful examples.
📋 toulmin strategy, 🗣️ rogerian strategy, ✒️ fill in the blanks, 🔍 edit and proofread, 🔗 references, 📌 argumentative essay in a nutshell.
Are you trying to figure out what an argumentative essay is? It’s a type of academic paper that covers both sides of a given issue. An author can decide whether they aim to present both sides equally or support one side more dynamically.
One of the mistakes among students is the confusion of argumentative and persuasive essays . Do you want to figure out the differences? Take a look at the following table.
Argumentative Essay | Persuasive essay | |
---|---|---|
Useful info, credible facts, relevant reasons, appropriate evidence. | The mix of data, personal opinion, and emotions. | |
Presenting credible resources to validate your claims and counterclaims. | Providing data from reputable sources, along with your feelings about the given issue, to persuade your reader. |
Before writing an argument essay, it would be helpful to choose an appropriate model to rely on. There are three strategies to consider: Classical, Toulmin, and Rogerian.
Look at the following sections and choose the most suitable one for you.
Are you wondering how to write an argumentative essay? Consider using the classical approach. It is the most popular way of composing an argumentative paper.
Under the classical strategy, the author has to follow these rules:
It is up to the audience to decide whether your position is right or wrong. Yet, you should try to convince the readers of the effectiveness of your opinion.
Usually, the classical argument paper is structured in the following way:
Toulmin strategy is the most suitable for the discussion of controversial issues. This model aims to find common ground through clear logic and valid evidence. Besides, the Toulmin strategy eliminates unnecessary things and limits the points to agree upon.
An argumentative essay written by the Toulmin model includes the following elements:
Like the Toulmin approach, Rogerian strategy attempts to find common ground between two sides of one issue. However, the technique is slightly different.
The Rogerian model is often used in highly controversial debates when the parties do not accept each other’s position. Thus, the given strategy focuses on finding the agreement by proving the validity of the opposing arguments.
Below, you can find the primary outline for the Rogerian argumentative essay:
Before working on your essay, carefully read the assignment. Make sure you understand all the instructor’s requirements and the purpose of the paper.
After that, start composing your argumentative essay. Check out the following sections. We have a lot of insightful info to share with you!
The first step of writing an argumentative paper is an in-depth investigation of the topic. To validate your arguments, you have to refer to credible resources. The essay will look more professional if you use reliable sources in it.
To research like a professional , do the following:
The majority of students tend to underestimate the power of outlining. Don’t do this! An argumentative essay outline is a helpful tool for planning, structuring, and composing.
Firstly , a well-developed outline helps the writer to put all their thoughts in an appropriate order. None of the essential points will be lost if the student plans the essay before writing.
Secondly , it lets the writer figure out what evidence suits what argument most. Before writing, draft your essay first. Put examples, facts, etc. in the right parts of the paper. Then, write the entire text.
Thirdly , an outline provides a perfect opportunity to change the essay’s parts without rewriting the paper. Are you unsure of specific details? Not a problem. Change them in the outline without ruining the text.
There are essential elements that your outline should contain. Check out the following section to see them.
How to start an argumentative essay? First and foremost, include an argumentative essay introduction in your outline.
This part should grab the readers’ attention from the first words. Thus, put enough effort into composing a compelling hook . What can it be? An impressive statistic or an exciting fact? Be creative – decide yourself! But make sure that your intro is catchy enough.
After the hook, introduce your topic’s general background . Prove the readers the significance of your issue and gradually come to the thesis statement .
The concept of studying abroad is becoming increasingly popular in both developed and developing countries. Students around the globe strive to explore the world and broaden their minds, and studying in a foreign country is an excellent opportunity to do so. Such experience may be extremely beneficial because meeting new people and discovering foreign cultures help students to gain valuable knowledge and see the world from a new perspective. However, while presenting significant opportunities for personal growth, it may also bring about some challenges.
A thesis is an essential part of your argumentative essay. It should state your position regarding the issue clearly and concisely. Avoid general statements, vague words, and be as specific and possible. Your thesis statement should guide the readers throughout the main points of the paper.
The location of the thesis in the essay plays a crucial role. The most appropriate place for it is the last sentence of the introductory paragraph.
Although students face difficulties such as loneliness while studying abroad, it is a worthy experience to introduce them to new knowledge, people, and culture and promote their independence.
The body of your paper is supposed to develop your position, provide valid evidence and examples. Each paragraph has to focus only on one idea. This will ensure the logical structure of your argumentative essay.
A body paragraph should start from the topic sentence and end with the concluding sentence . Such a frame around every section will make your readers stay concentrated on your ideas and get your opinion.
Each body paragraph should include an argument (or a counterargument) with supporting evidence. Get your proof from credible sources and ensure that it directly corresponds to the point.
An example of a topic sentence :
The benefits of education abroad are almost innumerable, prominent examples being gaining new knowledge, making friends with people who have different mindsets, and discovering new cultures.
An example of a concluding sentence:
Participants of student exchange programs usually return more driven and eager to develop both themselves and their country.
A conclusion plays a critical role in understanding the entire paper. It summarizes the body and leaves the final impression. Besides, it may push the readers on further investigation of the issue.
One more tip:
To sum up, studying abroad is beneficial as it helps a person evolve and perceive a world from new perspectives. It is an opportunity for a participant to explore the world, meet new people, gain valuable knowledge and experience, and broaden their horizons. Education abroad might pose problems like homesickness, loneliness, and trouble with getting accustomed to a new environment. However, all of them can be easily overcome if a student is flexible and eager to become autonomous and independent.
The list of references is a crucial part of any argumentative essay. It should contain all the sources the writer uses in the paper.
Before organizing your reference list , double-check your argumentative essay format. Is it written in MLA, APA, or maybe in Chicago style? How many references does the professor expect you to include? What kind of sources are you required to use?
After figuring out these issues, move to the format requirements of the writing style you use for your paper. The most popular ones are APA (7th edition), MLA, and ChicagoAD (author-date) styles. Below, you can find the examples of a reference for the same book in different formatting styles.
Style | |
---|---|
Structure | Last name, First initial. Middle initial. (Year). Publisher. |
Example | Clifton, L. (1996). . Copper Canyon Press. |
Style | |
---|---|
Structure | Last Name, First Name. Publisher, Publication Date. |
Example | Clifton, Lucille. . Copper Canyon Press, 1996. |
Style | |
---|---|
Structure | Author’s Last Name, First Name. Year of Publication. Publisher’s Location: Publisher’s Name. |
Example | Clifton, Lucille. 1993. . Washington: Copper Canyon Press. |
Did you develop a good outline? Congratulations! You are almost done with the essay. Now, you need to fill in the blanks and create a final version of your paper. Here is where you need to demonstrate a high level of your writing skills.
The final step of your writing process is editing and proofreading. Although it is not that energy and time consuming, it still plays a critical role in the work’s success.
While writing your argumentative paper, plan your time accordingly. This will provide you with an opportunity to polish your essay before submitting it. And take a look at our checklist and always use it to improve your papers:
It is up to you to decide how many parts to include in your essay. However, the 5 paragraph structure is the most appropriate model for an argumentative paper. So, write an introduction, a conclusion, and three body paragraphs.
The pronoun “you” is acceptable for informal writing. Yet, in academic papers, avoid using the second person. The same situation is with the first person. Generally, academic papers require the use of the third person.
A hook aims to grab the readers’ attention. Thus, you could start your essay with an interesting fact about your issue. Another way to create a catchy hook is to prove the audience the relatability of your topic. Make the readers want to explore your essay by demonstrating the significance of your issue.
Yes, you can. A question might become a compelling hook. Just make sure that it is profound, thought-provocative, and concise. A too broad or complicated question will only confuse your readers.
A title is an essential part of the essay since it causes the first impression. While selecting a heading, take into consideration the following points:
1. The title must be catchy.
2. It has to be not too long (5-12 words).
3. The title has to reflect the topic of the paper.
4. It should not be too complicated: the simpler – the better.
Thank you for visiting our page! We hope the information was helpful and insightful. Do you have friends who seek help with writing an argumentative essay? Share our article with them. And don’t forget to leave your comments!
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What is an argumentative essay.
An argumentative essay requires the writer to investigate a specific topic by collecting and evaluating evidence to establish a position on the subject matter.
When preparing to compose a good argumentative essay, utilize the following steps:
Step 1: Select a topic.
Step 2: Identify a position.
Step 3: Locate appropriate resources.
Step 4: Identify evidence supporting the position. ( NOTE: If there is little evidence in support of the claim, consider re-examining the main argument.)
When gathering evidence, use credible sources . To determine the credibility of the source, consider authority, currency, accuracy, and objectivity:
Who is the author ? Are they an expert in the field? Has a reputable publisher published the work?
How current is the information in the source? Does the currency of the source matter? Does the age of the source impact the content? Is there newer information that disproves the source’s information?
Can other sources verify the accuracy of the information? Does the information contradict that found in other commonly accepted sources?
Is there any evidence of bias, or is the source objective ? Is the research sponsored by an organization that may skew the information?
The following are typically recognized as providing appropriate, credible research material:
Peer-reviewed journals/research papers
Government agencies
Professional organizations
Library databases
Reference books
Writers should avoid using the following sources:
Social media posts
Out-of-date materials
Step 5: Utilize the research to determine a thesis statement that identifies the topic, position, and support(s).
Step 6: Use the evidence to construct an outline, detailing the main supports and relevant evidence.
After gathering all of the necessary research, the next step in composing an argumentative essay focuses on organizing the information through the use of an outline:
Introduction
Attention Grabber/Hook
Background Information: Include any background information pertinent to the topic that the reader needs to know to understand the argument.
Thesis: State the position in connection to the main topic and identify the supports that will help prove the argument.
Topic sentence
Identify evidence in support of the claim in the topic sentence
Explain how the evidence supports the argument
Evidence 3 (Continue as needed)
Support 2 (Continue as needed)
Restate thesis
Review main supports
Concluding statement
Invite the audience to take a specific action.
Identify the overall importance of the topic and position.
Regardless of the writer’s topic or point of view, an argumentative essay should include an introductory paragraph, body paragraphs, a conclusion, and works cited.
Background information
Body Paragraphs
Analysis of evidence
Rephrased thesis
Review of main ideas
Call to action
Works Cited
The introduction sets the tone for the entire paper and introduces the argument. In general, the first paragraph(s) should attract the reader’s attention, provide relevant context, and conclude with a thesis statement.
To attract the reader's attention , start with an introductory device. There are several attention-grabbing techniques, the most common of which consist of the following:
The writer can emphasize the topic’s importance by explaining the current interest in the topic or indicating that the subject is influential.
Pertinent statistics give the paper an air of authority.
There are many reasons for a stimulating statement to surprise a reader. Sometimes it is joyful; sometimes it is shocking; sometimes it is surprising because of who said it.
An interesting incident or anecdote can act as a teaser to lure the reader into the remainder of the essay. Be sure that the device is appropriate for the subject and focus of what follows.
Provide the reader with relevant context and background information necessary to understand the topic.
Conclude with a thesis statement that identifies the overall purpose of the essay (topic and position). Writers can also include their support directly in the thesis, which outlines the structure of the essay for the reader.
Avoid the following when writing the introduction to argumentative writing:
Starting with dictionary definitions is too overdone and unappealing.
Do not make an announcement of the topic like “In this paper I will…” or “The purpose of this essay is to….”
Evidence supporting or developing the thesis should be in the body paragraphs, not the introduction.
Beginning the essay with general or absolute statements such as “throughout history...” or “as human beings we always...” or similar statements suggest the writer knows all of history or that all people behave or think in the same way.
The thesis statement is the single, specific claim the writer sets out to prove and is typically positioned as the last sentence of the introduction . It is the controlling idea of the entire argument that identifies the topic, position, and reasoning.
When constructing a thesis for an argumentative paper, make sure it contains a side of the argument, not simply a topic. An argumentative thesis identifies the writer’s position on a given topic. If a position cannot be taken, then it is not argumentative thesis:
Topic: Capital punishment is practiced in many states.
Thesis: Capital punishment should be illegal.
While not always required, the thesis statement can include the supports the writer will use to prove the main claim. Therefore, a thesis statement can be structured as follows:
TOPIC + POSITION (+ SUPPORTS)
No Supports: College athletes (TOPIC) should be financially compensated (POSITION).
Supports: College athletes (TOPIC) should be financially compensated (POSITION) because they sacrifice their minds and bodies (SUPPORT 1), cannot hold
Body paragraphs can be of varying lengths, but they must present a coherent argument unified under a single topic. They are rarely ever longer than one page, double-spaced; usually they are much shorter.
Lengthy paragraphs indicate a lack of structure. Identify the main ideas of a lengthy paragraph to determine if they make more sense as separate topics in separate paragraphs.
Shorter paragraphs usually indicate a lack of substance; there is not enough evidence or analysis to prove the argument. Develop the ideas more or integrate the information into another paragraph.
The structure of an argumentative paragraph should include a topic sentence, evidence, and a transition.
The topic sentence is the thesis of the paragraph that identifies the arguable point in support of the main argument. The reader should know exactly what the writer is trying to prove within the paragraph by reading the first sentence.
The supporting evidence and analysis provide information to support the claim. There should be a balance between the evidence (facts, quotations, summary of events/plot, etc.) and analysis (interpretation of evidence). If the paragraph is evidence-heavy, there is not much of an argument; if it is analysis-heavy, there is not enough evidence in support of the claim.
The transition can be at the beginning or the end of a paragraph. However, it is much easier to combine the transition with the concluding observation to help the paragraphs flow into one another. Transitions in academic writing should tell the reader where you were, where you are going, and relate to the thesis.
Some essays may benefit from the inclusion of rebuttals to potential counterarguments of the writer’s position.
The conclusion should make readers glad they read the paper. It can suggest broader implications that will not only interest readers but also enrich their understanding in some way. There are three aspects to follow when constructing the conclusion: rephrase the thesis, synthesize information, and call the reader to action.
Rephrased the thesis in the first sentence of the conclusion. It must be in different words; do not simply write it verbatim.
Synthesize the argument by showing how the paper's main points support the argument.
Propose a course of action or a solution to an issue. This can redirect the reader's thought process to apply the ideas to their life or to see the broader implications of the topic.
Avoid the following when constructing the conclusion:
Beginning with an unnecessary, overused phrase such as "in conclusion," "in summary," or "in closing;" although these phrases can work in speeches, they come across as trite in writing
Introducing a new idea or subtopic in the conclusion
Making sentimental, emotional appeals that are out of character with the rest of the paper
Including evidence (quotations, statistics, etc.) that should be in the body of the paper
Examples of argumentative essays vary depending upon the type:
Academic essays differ based upon the topic and position. These essays follow a more traditional structure and are typically assigned in high school or college. Examples of academic argumentative essay topics include the following:
Advantages or disadvantages of social media
Animal testing
Art education
Benefit or detriment of homework
Capital punishment
Class warfare
Immigration
School uniforms
Universal healthcare
Violence in video games
Argumentative literary essays are typically more informal and do not follow the same structure as an academic essay. The following are popular examples of argumentative literary essays:
“Letter from Birmingham Jail” by Martin Luther King, Jr.
“Death of the Moth” by Virginia Woolf
“Shooting an Elephant” by George Orwell
“Thoughts for the Times on War and Death” by Sigmund Freud
“Does the Truth Matter? Science, Pseudoscience, and Civilization” by Carl Sagan
“Self-Reliance” by Ralph Waldo Emerson
With argumentative essays, the student must explore his stance on an issue and think about possible rebuttals to this claim. Otherwise, the argumentative essay is incomplete.
However, all forms of essay writing follow a specified format, and they all need an outline. So, let’s examine how to write an argumentative essay . This guide will also cover essay examples and useful writing tips to present a convincing argument.
An argumentative essay is a form of writing that explores the writer’s viewpoint on any topic. The writer must outline their opinion in the opening paragraphs to give the reader a better understanding of their stance on the issue.
Despite similarities with other forms of writing like persuasive essays, argumentative essays go beyond convincing the reader that your point is superior. You also need to explore different existing viewpoints on the issue and refute them. Besides, you must support all your claims with irrefutable evidence based on fact.
For example, if the argumentative essay topic focuses on police brutality, your paper should support and refute these claims simultaneously.
In academia, argumentative essay writing is one of the most common assignments for students in the arts and humanities. Besides, the standard structure of argumentative essays is the bedrock of the famous 5-paragraph writing style.
The argument claim describes the prevailing viewpoint in your argument — the theory you support. Before outlining your view, you need to select presentation criteria to dictate the paper’s tone and direction. Here are the five types of argument claims:
The fact claim focuses on answering a ‘yes or no’ question. This claim uses concrete evidence to determine the veracity of the paper’s central claim. Often, the fact claim is used when the argumentative essay topic is a question .
When using the definition claim, you should only focus on the standard definition of the word or expression. All forms of personal and contextual interpretation should not appear in the paper.
The value claim stresses the importance of the topic of discussion. What is the relevance to society? This type of claim is often used for existential problems affecting humans in general or a specific group.
As the name suggests, the cause and effect claim focuses on an issue and the reasons it occurred. In essence, the essay establishes a connection between an event and an outcome.
This claim assertion technique is used in politics. For argumentative essay writing, the policy claim should address the relevance of the discussion, the affected parties, and the best policy moving forward.
Making a convincing argument relies on your ability to strategize. You need to acquaint yourself with the facts of the matter and choose a winning strategy to express your ideas.
Think of lawyers in the courtroom; they spend hours preparing their arguments and studying the adversary. And in the end, they come up with a strategy to counter the opponent’s most vital points. Politicians also use this technique.
So, let’s go through the three main argument strategies to use in your argumentative essay.
The classical approach is named after the great philosopher Aristotle. This argumentative strategy involves a straight-line expression of your argument.
First, you start with your main claim and convince the reader that your stance is the only valid one. Then, you have to offer context and provide evidence-backed data to counter any rebuttals from your opponent. This strategy is the most straightforward since it follows a linear chain of action.
Also, the classical approach appeals to the credibility (ethos) of the claim and the logic (logos) of thinking. At the same time, you can appeal to the reader’s emotions (pathos) with vivid imagery. And most importantly, you can make a time-sensitive appeal (kairos) by calling the reader to immediate action.
This argumentative strategy was developed by Carl Rogers and became popular through the works of Young and Pike. This strategy’s central ideology focuses on compromise — the ability to reach a middle ground and avoid further conflict with your adversary.
In life, the Rogerian strategy is often applied when negotiating with family and friends. For example, if you want to visit Paris and your partner wants to see Venice, the Rogerian method will help you plan a trip that covers both destinations.
Therefore, this Rogerian strategy is not the best approach in an academic setting. Even if you are ready to reach a compromise, your opponent may not have the same motivations. Besides, you have to yield some ground to come to a sensible resolution, which contrasts the entire essence of argumentation.
This argumentative approach was developed by Stephen Toulmin. The central theme involves coming up with a claim and backing it up. So, we can divide this strategy into three components: claim, grounds, and backing.
The claim is your main opinion, usually an event that occurred somewhere. The grounds of the argument refer to a collection of facts and evidence supporting the original claim. Finally, the backing refers to additional data that corroborates the main claim without conceding to the opposition.
Choose one of these three approaches to present an opinion relevant to the argumentative essay topic. And if you are unsure about the best approach, use the classic method.
How to choose a topic for an argumentative essay.
Most teachers hand out argumentative essay topics to students. Sometimes, they provide an array of topics from which students can choose. However, some teachers allow students to flex their creative muscles and choose topics on their own. If you are left with the herculean task of selecting a fascinating essay topic, here are some tricks to help you come out unscathed.
Regardless of the essay writing genre, always choose a topic that interests you. If you are into sports, look for sports-related argumentative essay topics . Selecting a topic that you don’t care about will always reflect in the paper’s quality. The entire argument will lack inspiration and passion.
Besides, writing on a topic that you find interesting helps you to explore the topic even more. It also reduces the amount of work needed to complete the argumentative essay assignment . So, always outline your interests when choosing a topic, and tailor your research to them.
Another easy way to come up with a relevant topic is by addressing hot-button issues. For example, topics related to animal rights and climate change are the subject of debates in politics and even at dinner parties. As a result, you can find enough material to structure your argumentative essay.
Besides, controversy sells. Readers want a topic that will strike all the emotional chords for them. So, choosing a controversial topic piques the reader’s interest and earns you maximum points in your essay. Most importantly, focus on hot-button issues related to your field of study.
Trending topics are always a reliable go-to when you are struggling with creative ideas for your argumentative paper. By focusing on trending topics, you will come up with relevant issues for arguments. At the same time, you will fulfill the emotional aspect of argumentation since most trending issues are controversial.
Besides, writing about popular issues gives you access to enough materials. You can also select your topic from any form of media.
Here are some reliable sources for argumentative essay topics:
A common theme for argumentative essays is the current COVID pandemic and its effects on social interactions.
When choosing essay topics, students often forget that they need to argue both sides. Therefore, the topic you choose must be arguable . In simpler terms, people should be able to look at it and agree or disagree instantly. Hence, the need to choose controversial topics for your argumentative essay.
For example:
“The earth is flat.”
No one (in their right mind) will argue with this assertion. And even if they do, no evidence can support this stance.
“Climate change will lead to armageddon.”
Now, this topic is debatable since scientists are conflicted about the long-term impacts of climate change.
You might think that choosing broad topics provides you with more content for your argumentative essay. But the reverse is the case: broad topics extend the area you need to cover in your paper. And since you have a word count restriction, you can’t express your ideas to the best of your ability.
Therefore, choose a topic that provides you with enough material. Some topics make you think, “How am I supposed to find evidence to support that?”
Stay away from these ‘unresearchable’ argumentative topics.
With a clear understanding of the topic, you can now focus your efforts on brainstorming. Conduct extensive research on the issue to gather enough information for all sides of the argument. After collecting the data and supporting evidence, you need to create a plan for your paper. This plan is called an argumentative essay outlin e .
The outline provides structure to your paper. It also saves you time when working on time-sensitive assignments. And most importantly, an essay outline provides you with an arrangement framework for your points.
For argumentative essays, the outline contains at least five paragraphs — the basis of the standard essay structure.
Let’s take a look at the standard argumentative essay structure .
Every essay starts with the introduction, making it the most crucial part of the argumentative essay format . This section previews the paper by providing background information on the topic. Besides, the argumentative essay introduction eliminates all elements of neutrality, stating the writer’s intentions to support a specific side of the argument.
As a result, you need a well-crafted thesis statement that captures the central theme covered in the paper. The thesis statement is often concise, with a maximum of two sentences. You can also place it at the end of the introduction.
This is the paper’s main section because it contains the source of information and the main arguments. Also, the body paragraphs examine two sides of the writer’s viewpoint. In essence, you have at least three sections or paragraphs dedicated to each point.
Here are the main paragraphs that make up the body.
This paragraph expresses the author’s main argument in detail. Depending on the paper’s size, this section can contain two or more paragraphs linked by transitional phrases.
This section presents opposing viewpoints to the main claim. In essence, the rebuttal counters the thesis presented in the introduction.
This section reaffirms the thesis and counters the rebuttal.
All three sections must appear in the body of a full-fledged argumentative essay. Also, you must start every paragraph with a topic sentence. Don’t forget to use linking verbs to establish a relationship between paragraphs. And most importantly, provide supporting evidence and citations for your points.
In this section, the student should restate the central ideas presented in the paper. A standard argumentative essay conclusion always starts by rehashing the thesis statement. However, you cannot introduce new ideas in the conclusion.
You can choose a myriad of topics for your essay based on the specific subject. But if you’ve hit a brick wall in your selection, here are some excellent examples to choose from based on earlier recommendations:
Every outstanding argumentative essay relies on persuasion. You need to convince the reader that your opinion is the ultimate truth. However, false evidence and poor grammar affect the credibility of your claims. So, let’s consider some essential tips when writing a convincing argumentative paper.
If the teacher allows you to select your preferred topic, make sure you choose an issue with arguable sides. After all, an argumentative essay’s entire essence is to explore all the sides of the problem and confirm your viewpoint. So, look for topics that interest you and are relevant to your field of study.
Nobody wants to spend time reading a bland, uninspired essay. So, while searching for topics, focus on hot-button issues. But don’t choose controversial topics for kicks. Ensure that the topic is related to your field. Moreover, pay more attention to issues that ignite your passion. This emotional connection improves your argument and makes the paper more engaging.
When choosing an emotionally-charged topic, avoid those that are limited in scope. You don’t have to select the ‘progressive’ side of every argument. Identify your interests and beliefs and focus your opinions on them. By doing so, you will give yourself more wiggle room to express your ideas better.
Writing an argumentative essay for your peers is different because you can use an informal and conversational style. But since your audience is the teacher, you can only use formal language. Therefore, adapt your writing style to your audience to earn higher marks. And as a rule, stay away from informal expressions in academic writing at all costs.
Personal experience and opinions have no place in argumentative writing, no matter how painful and convincing. Only evidence from authoritative sources is acceptable when supporting your claim. Therefore, your research should focus on academic material and resources from acclaimed authors. You can also rely on the works of recognized experts in the field to back your claims. Stay away from Wikipedia, Quora, and other open-source platforms.
As you gather your points, arrange them into a framework for your essay. This technique helps you to develop a relevant outline for your paper without much stress. Besides, the outline forms the basis of your argumentative essay and saves you tons of hours spent on arranging your ideas. Eventually, this outline will help you come up with a preliminary draft.
Why is a title essential when writing an argumentative essay? First of all, using a question title allows the reader to take a stance right away. And if the topic is emotionally-charged, you have your reader by the hook. And as far as hooks are concerned, use them in your essay. Add essay hooks in the introduction alongside a well-written thesis statement.
Every academic writing assignment follows a specified format. The only exception is narrative essays that feature personal accounts. When writing your argumentative essay, use the formatting style specified by the teacher. Remember that APA writing style needs an abstract, while the MLA doesn’t need one. If you don’t know the differences between writing formats, consult the official style guides for more clarity.
The conclusion paragraph should always restate the thesis. For a more comprehensive conclusion, summarize every paragraph in the essay. Always be careful not to introduce any new ideas in the conclusion paragraph. And most importantly, keep it short and straight to the point.
The last point in the conclusion should always call the reader to act on something. Since the point of an argument is to convince others that your opinion is the most logical, you should sign off by calling them over to your side. At the same time, you can highlight a moral lesson from the text.
Editing is the final frontier in any writing task. This stage of writing allows you to analyze your ideas and grammar. At the same time, you can adjust the writing structure or use a more impactful tone. When you are satisfied with the final draft, you can now submit your paper.
Don’t be intimidated by the rigors of writing argumentative essays. If you experience any issues when writing your paper, reach out to us with a request for assistance. Our essay service will help you scale that intimidating hurdle and deliver the final paper before the submission deadline. In general, check out the reasons why students rely on us for argumentative essay assistance.
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Nicholas Eberstadt offers insights into the challenges to U.S. leadership in a post-pandemic world. This is the inaugural essay in the series " The New Normal in Asia," which explores ways in which the Covid-19 pandemic might adjust, shape, or reorder the world across multiple dimensions. Download
Is this new normal really new or is it a reiteration of the old? A recent correspondence published in this journal rightly pointed out the involvement of a 'supportive' government, 'creative' church and an 'adaptive' public in the so-called culture. 2 However, I argue that adapting to the 'new normal' can greatly affect the future.
The "new normal" in education is the technological order—a passive technologization—and its expansion continues uncontested and even accelerated by the pandemic. Two Greek concepts, kronos and kairos, allow a discussion of contrasts between the quantitative and the qualitative in education.
When do you write an argumentative essay? You might be assigned an argumentative essay as a writing exercise in high school or in a composition class. The prompt will often ask you to argue for one of two positions, and may include terms like "argue" or "argument." It will frequently take the form of a question.
An argumentative essay is one that makes a clear assertion or argument about some topic or issue. When you're writing an argumentative essay, it's important to remember that an academic argument is quite different from a regular, emotional argument.
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that uses logical evidence and empirical data to convince readers of a particular position on a topic. Because of its reliance on structure and planning, the first step in writing one is often drafting a solid argumentative essay outline.
An argumentative essay in academic writing is where one takes a stance on a particular topic, presents arguments to support that stance, and aims to persuade readers to accept the point of view presented. Read this to learn how to write an argumentative essay with examples, create an argumentative essay outline, and gain expert tips for authors.
What is an argumentative essay? Learn what sets this form of writing apart and how to write an argumentative paper.
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that uses factual evidence and logical support to convince the reader of a certain way of thinking. Although many types of essays aim at persuading the reader to believe a specific point of view, argumentative essays rely heavily on hard evidence, drawing on other studies and sources to prove their argument is best.
How to Write an Argumentative Essay An argumentative essay is a structured, compelling piece of writing where an author clearly defines their stance on a specific topic. This is a very popular style of writing assigned to students at schools, colleges, and universities. Learn the steps to researching, structuring, and writing an effective argumentative essay below.
When you're writing a persuasive essay, you need more than just an opinion to make your voice heard. Even the strongest stance won't be compelling if it's not structured properly and reinforced with solid reasoning and evidence. Learn what elements every argumentative essay should include and how to structure it depending on your audience in this easy step-by-step guide.
As a result of COVID-19, online university teaching has become the "new normal" but also re-focussed questions regarding its efficacy. The weight of evidence from this review is that online learning is at least as effective and often better than, F2F modalities in supporting learning outcomes, albeit these differences are often modest.
Here's our 12-step recipe for writing a great argumentative essay: Pick a topic. Choose your research sources. Read your sources and take notes. Create a thesis statement. Choose three main arguments to support your thesis statement —now you have a skeleton outline.
Looking for good argumentative essay examples? Check out our full analysis of 3 argumentative essay samples to help you write your own.
The argumentative essay requires well-researched, accurate, detailed, and current information to support the thesis statement and consider other points of view. Some factual, logical, statistical, or anecdotal evidence should support the thesis. However, students must consider multiple points of view when collecting evidence.
Argumentative essay formula & example. In the image below, you can see a recommended structure for argumentative essays. It starts with the topic sentence, which establishes the main idea of the essay. Next, this hypothesis is developed in the development stage. Then, the rebuttal, or the refutal of the main counter argument or arguments.
Argumentative Writing and Using Evidence, Spring 2022. 4 of 5. Evidence: A study of New York middle schools found that by extending school lunches to all students, regardless of family income, test scores increased by 0.083 standard deviations in math and 0.059 in English Language Arts for non-poor students, and, though smaller, statistically ...
Writing an argumentative essay? What's a good topic? Learn how to write a great argumentative essay and read our expert examples.
What is an argumentative essay? How to start and write it? 🔎 Find out in this article about argumentative essays with examples of arguments and structure.
An argumentative essay requires the writer to investigate a specific topic by collecting and evaluating evidence to establish a position on the subject matter.
An essay about how students adapt in the new normal life during the pandemic. the new normal: life of student in the midst of pandemic find it stupefying on how
Are you stuck with your argumentative essay writing assignment? Don't know how to choose a topic for your argumentative essay? Learn these useful tips to write better arguments before the deadline.
1 Matthew Barbee, 2015 Name Class Argumentative Essay Writing In an argumentative essay, your job is make the reader agree with your opinion about a controversial topic. You have to (1) state your opinion, (2) give reasons to support your opinion, and (3) argue against the opposite opinion. Overall, you must convince the audience that your side of the argument is correct.